Introduction

Meats typically comprise three tissues: muscle, connective tissue and fat, and sometimes include skin made from mostly connective tissue and fat. A popular meat product is pork belly, which is a boneless and fatty cut of meat from the belly of a pig. Pork belly is particularly popular in Hispanic, Chinese, Danish, Norwegian, Korean, Thai and Filipino cuisine.

Recent years have seen a large increase in the popularity amongst consumers of meat analogue products. A system that fully delivers the function of fat and connective tissue of cooked meat has yet to be developed for pork belly meat analogue products.

In particular, there is a clear need to develop a fat tissue analogue that has an elastic and chewy texture, as well as a translucent appearance, which is similar to that of cooked fat tissue of real meat pork belly products.

Embodiments of the invention

The invention relates to a method of making a fat analogue, said method comprising dispersing starch, konjac, and oil in liquid, adjusting pH and heating to form a fat analogue. The fat analogue is highly similar to the fat found in real pork belly meat products.

The invention relates to a method of making a fat analogue, said method comprising dispersing waxy starch and konjac in water, adjusting the pH, and heating to form a fat analogue.

The invention relates to a method of making a fat analogue, said method comprising dispersing waxy starch, konjac, and plant oil in water, adding alkali solution to adjust pH, and heating to form a fat analogue.

The invention relates to a method of making a fat analogue, said method comprising dispersing waxy starch, konjac, plant oil, and optionally salt, in water, adding alkali solution to adjust to at least pH 8.5, and molding and heating to form a fat analogue.

The invention relates to a method of making a fat analogue, said method comprising i. dispersing waxy starch, konjac, plant oil, and optionally salt, in water; ii. adding alkali solution to adjust to between pH 8.5 to 11; and iii. molding and heating to form a fat analogue.

In one embodiment, the waxy starch comprises at least 80% amylopectin. Preferably, the waxy starch comprises at least 90% amylopectin.

In one embodiment, the waxy starch comprises up to 10% amylose. Preferably, the waxy starch is essentially free of amylose.

In one embodiment, the waxy starch is waxy maize starch.

The fat analogue may comprise between 1 to 9 wt%, or between 2 to 8 wt%, or between 3 to 7 wt%, or between 4 to 6 wt% waxy starch, or between 4.5 to 5.5 wt% starch. In one embodiment, the fat analogue comprises 5 wt% waxy starch, or about 5 wt% waxy starch.

In one embodiment, the konjac is konjac flour or konjac glucomannan.

The fat analogue may comprise between 2 to 4 wt%, or between 1.8 to 4.2 wt% konjac, or between 2.5 to 3.5 wt% konjac, or between 2.7 to 3.3 wt% konjac. In one embodiment, the fat analogue comprises 3wt% konjac or about 3 wt% konjac.

In one embodiment, the plant oil is dispersed in water to form coarse droplets before the addition of the konjac, waxy starch, and optional addition of salt.

The fat analogue may comprise up to 9wt%, up to 8wt%, up to 7wt%, or up to 6wt% oil; or between 0.1 to 9 wt%, or between 0.1 to 8 wt%, or between 0.1 to 7 wt%, or between 0.1 to 6 wt% oil.

In one embodiment, the fat analogue comprises between 3 to 7 wt% plant oil, or between 4 to 6 wt% plant oil, or between 4.5 to 5.5 wt% plant oil, or 5 wt% plant oil, or about 5 wt% plant oil.

In one embodiment, the plant oil is high oleic sunflower oil.

In one embodiment, the alkali solution is used to adjust pH to between 9 to 10 and trigger gelation. Preferably, the alkali solution is a metal carbonate solution. The fat analogue may comprise at least 0.1 wt% metal carbonate, or at least 0.2 wt% metal carbonate, or at least 0.25 wt% metal carbonate; or about 0.3 wt% metal carbonate; or up to 0.5 wt% metal carbonate. In one embodiment, the metal carbonate is potassium carbonate. In one embodiment, the metal carbonate is sodium carbonate.

In one embodiment, a skin analogue is applied as a layer onto the fat analogue, for example a skin analogue as described herein.

The invention further relates to a fat analogue, made by a method according to the invention.

The invention further relates to a fat analogue comprising 1 to 10 wt% oil, 75 to 95 wt% water, 1 to 9 wt% konjac, 1 to 10 wt% waxy starch, and optionally 0.1 to 2 wt% salt.

The invention further relates to the use of a fat analogue according to the invention in a meat analogue product, wherein the meat analogue product is pork belly, burger, or sausage.

The embodiments described herein for the method of the invention can also be used to further describe the corresponding product of the invention, or use, where appropriate.

Detailed description of the embodiments

Method of making a fat analogue

In the present invention, the fat-like texture and elastic and smooth appearance of the fat analogue is developed from the combination of konjac glucomannan, waxy starch and oil. Typically, the oil is added to water whilst mixing, for example at speed 3 to 3.5 using a Thermomix. The speed can be increased to about level 7 to 8 for about 20 seconds to make a coarse emulsion. Typically, the dry mix of konjac, waxy maize starch, and sodium chloride is added to the coarse emulsion. Mixing continues at a typical speed 3 to 3.5 to disperse and hydrate the dry mix ingredients. The hydrated mass can be transferred, for example to a Kenwood mixer, to fully hydrate by mixing for about 15 minutes. Potassium carbonate powder can be solubilized in water, for example in about 5% of the water used for the fat analogue, and mixed into the dough for about 3 minutes. The dough can be heated, for example in an air oven, at about 100°C for about 50 minutes. The core temperature should reach about 85°C for about 20 minutes. A gel-like texture that is very similar to animal pork belly fat is produced. Dough texture was found to be further modified through freezing. Freezing in general increases the hardness.

Konjac

Konjac glucomannan has a high capacity of water holding and forms elastic dough or gel with weak alkali and heating through a controlled deacetylation process. The fat analogue preferably comprises between 1 to 5% konjac, more preferably between 1.5 to 4% konjac. Konjac comprises glucomannan which is water soluble, and forms heat stable, elastic gel in the presence of alkali condition and heating.

Alkali

When the alkali is potassium carbonate or sodium carbonate, then the alkali concentration is typically between 0.1 to 0.6%, preferably between 0.2 to 0.4%, so that the pH range is between 9 to 10. The pH range is more important than the wt% alkali.

Waxy starch

Waxy maize starch was found to reduce the hardness of the konjac gels, provides creaminess and freeze-thaw stability. Syneresis is avoided and textural changes during freezing are reduced.

Preferably, the waxy starch comprises greater than 90% amylopectin. Preferably, the waxy starch comprises less than 10% amylose. Waxy starch is essentially free from amylose. Mung bean starch and pea starch are higher in amylose, comprising 40% and 50%, respectively. Potato starch comprises about 25% amylose. Tapioca starch comprises about 17% amylose. Waxy starch was found to reduce the gel strength of the konjac gels. Amylose was found to have high synergistic gelation with konjac.

Typically, the waxy maize starch comprises about 97 wt% carbohydrate, and up to about 0.15 wt% fat.

Plant oil

Large oil droplets (typically between 5 to 20 microns) are formed in the method of the invention by limited homogenization without emulsifier. They are responsible for whiteness while allowing the maintenance of translucency. Oil addition also reduces dough stickiness. If more whiteness, and a more stable emulsion is desired, then the fat analogue can be prepared using an emulsifier, for example soy protein at a typical final concentration of at least 0.2%.

Fat analogue product

The fat analogue of the invention typically comprises about 80.7 wt% water; about 5 wt% water for potassium carbonate; about 5 wt% Sunflower Oil High Oleic Type 20 L; about 0.3 wt% potassium carbonate; about 3 wt% konjac powder; about 5 wt% waxy maize starch; and about 1 wt% NaCI.

Method of making skin analogue

A skin-like texture and appearance can be developed from konjac glucomannan, waxy starch and soy sauce. Firmer texture is obtained by using a higher amount of konjac glucomannan and alkali. Higher skin translucency is obtained when oil is not used. Soy sauce is used mainly to provide a brown color.

Skin analogue product

The skin analogue typically comprises about 89.7 wt% water; about 1.3 wt% soy sauce; about 5 wt% konjac powder; about 5 wt% waxy maize starch; and about 0.3 wt% sodium carbonate.

Definitions

The compositions disclosed herein may lack any element that is not specifically disclosed herein. Thus, a disclosure of an embodiment using the term "comprising" includes a disclosure of embodiments "consisting essentially of" and "consisting of" and "containing" the components identified. Similarly, the methods disclosed herein may lack any step that is not specifically disclosed herein. Thus, a disclosure of an embodiment using the term "comprising" includes a disclosure of embodiments "consisting essentially of" and "consisting of" and "containing" the steps identified. Any embodiment disclosed herein can be combined with any other embodiment disclosed herein unless explicitly and directly stated otherwise.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms and any acronyms used herein have the same meanings as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art in the field of the invention. Although any compositions, methods, articles of manufacture, or other means or materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice of the present invention, the preferred compositions, methods, articles of manufacture, or other means or materials are described herein.

The term "wt%" or "wt.%" used herein refers to weight % of the total composition, for example of the fat analogue product.

As used herein, "about," is understood to refer to numbers in a range of numerals, for example the range of -40% to +40% of the referenced number, more preferably the range of -20% to +20% of the referenced number, more preferably the range of -10% to +10% of the referenced number, more preferably -5% to +5% of the referenced number, more preferably -1% to +1% of the referenced number, most preferably -0.1% to +0.1% of the referenced number. All numerical ranges herein should be understood to include all integers, whole or fractions, within the range. Moreover, these numerical ranges should be construed as providing support for a claim directed to any number or subset of numbers in that range. For example, a disclosure of from 1 to 10 should be construed as supporting a range of from 1 to 8, from 3 to 7, from 1 to 9, from 3.6 to 4.6, from 3.5 to 9.9, and so forth.

The term "essentially free" insofar as it relates to an ingredient or component means that the ingredient or component is present in an amount of less than 0.5 wt%, or less than 0.1 wt%, or is entirely absent.

Examples

Example 1

Pork belly fat recipe and process

A fat analogue that mimics the cooked animal pork belly fat was prepared according to the recipe below:

Table 1

The oil was added to water whilst mixing (at speed 3 to 3.5) with a Thermomix. The speed was then increased to level 7 to 8 for 20s to make a coarse emulsion. The dry mix of konjac, waxy maize starch, and sodium chloride was then added to the coarse emulsion whilst mixing at speed 3 to 3.5 to disperse and hydrate the dry mix ingredients. The hydrated mass was then transferred to a Kenwood mixer to fully hydrate by mixing for 15min. Potassium carbonate powder was solubilized in dedicated water (5% of the water used for the recipe) and then mixed into the dough for 3min. The dough was heated in an air oven at 100°C for 50min, so that the core temperature reached 85°C for 20min, thereby producing a gel-like texture that was very similar to animal pork belly fat.

Example 2

Pork belly skin recipe and process

A skin analogue that mimics the cooked pork belly skin was prepared according to the recipe below:

Table 2

Soy sauce was added in waterfirst, and the dry ingredients were then dispersed and hydrated in the solution for 20min at room temperature. Sodium carbonate powder was solubilized in dedicated water (5% of the water used for the recipe) and then mixed into the dough for 3min. The dough was ready to apply together with the fat analogue made as described in Example 1, and heated in the oven 100°C for 50min (core temperature 85°C for 20min) to set the gel. Typically, the skin analogue and fat analogue are made separately and then cooked together.

Example 3

Technical tasting of plant based burger and plant based sausage

For the plant based burger, the fat analogue without skin was chopped into smaller pieces (between 0.1 to 0.5cm diameter) and incorporated into the extrudates (HME) with binder and coconut fat. The fat-like pieces provided the mouthfeel of a moist and elastic fat tissue. For the plant based sausage, the fat analogue without skin was chopped into smaller pieces (between 0.2 to 0.8cm) and incorporated into the extrudates (HME/TVP) with binder and coconut fat. The pieces provided the appearance of fat tissue (translucent, whitish), and mouthfeel of a moist and elastic fat tissue.

Example 4 Fat analogue experimental plan: prototype recipes & process, sensory & analytical characterization

Twelve carbohydrate-based heat set gels (Prototypes A to L) were made using konjac glucomannan (KGM), different starches, potassium carbonate, high oleic sunflower oil, sodium chloride and water.

A coarse emulsion was formed by mixing the water and the high oleic sunflower oil at room temperature (high shear 4000 - 6000 rpm). A dry mix comprising KGM, starch, and sodium chloride was then added while applying a gentle mixing (500 - 1000 rpm). The mixture was further mixed for 15min under the same conditions to ensure proper dispersion of the ingredients and hydration of the konjac glucomannan. A solution of potassium carbonate was then added to trigger the gelation of KGM in alkali conditions and provide the fat analogue texture. The mixture was then further mixed in the same conditions for 3 minutes.

The mass was then molded in several identical metallic rings (20mm height, 32mm diameter) allowing the standardization of the volume and shape for the texture and sensory analyses.

Finally, a heating treatment step at 100°C for 50min was applied on the molded samples to accelerate the heat set gelation mechanism until the gels were completely set. Before sensory assessment and texture analysis characterization, samples were kept in the fridge for 24 hours and then pan fried according to a standardized procedure. The pan frying of samples was performed in an anti-adhesive pan at 140°C for 4 minutes: Face A: 1 minute; Face B: 1 minute; and Circle edge: 2 minutes. The pork belly animal fat reference was treated exactly in the same way, after a pre-cooking of 2h in a plastic bag soaked in boiled water. The same standardized shapes were sampled from real pork belly animal fat part using a cookie cutter (20mm height, 32mm diameter).

The experimental plan was designed to define the best fat analogue texture matching with pork belly animal fat reference and was set-up to vary the following recipe parameters: KGM concentration, potassium carbonate concentration, nature of starch, concentration of starch, lipid content.

The best-in-class recipe (B), described in example 1, was defined by performing technical sensory assessments and comparing with texture attributes of the real pork belly animal fat reference. The experimental plan was then designed around this best-in-class recipe to understand the impact of each recipe parameter on texture and to confirm that recipe (B) is the one fitting the pork belly animal fat reference.

The experimental factors which were varied and the levels used are shown below: Table 3:

An analytical texture characterization of the generated prototypes was performed using the

Texture Profile Analysis (TPA) method (https://www.rheologylab.com/services/texture- analysis/) , applied with a TA.HDplusC Texture Analyzer from Stable Micro Systems company.

The TPA method involves a double compression of the prototypes, standardized in volume and shape, using a compression plate with a 75mm diameter.

The double compression allows to generate graphs and to define the texture parameters. In parallel, a sensory evaluation of cooked pork belly animal fat and prototypes was performed with trained panelists (n = 9), on 8 out of the 12 samples of the plan. For this purpose, the following dedicated sensory glossary focusing specifically on texture attributes was developed:

Table 4:

The panelists received 2 training sessions before assessing samples, each of length 1 hour. For the sensory evaluation, they were asked to perform Rate All That Apply (RATA) sensory methodology. A five-category scale was used with, from left to right, "not perceived", "slightly", "moderately", "very" and "extremely" as verbal labels. To properly set the intensity scales of each texture attribute within the panel and align the ranking, a known warm-up sample was proposed to panelists at the beginning of each sensory session with the related scores for each attribute. The panelists then scored the samples of the experimental plan based on the scales set for the warm-up sample. Data were collected using EyeQuestion® software (Logic 8, Elst, the Netherlands) in individual sensory booths using not to be biased by samples appearance. Samples were identified using a 3-digit random code. Sensory evaluation was performed under red light to neutralize the impact of color variation among samples on texture assessment during the tasting. To avoid saturation effect, a maximum of 4 products (+ 1 warm-up sample) were evaluated for each single session with 2 minutes pause between the samples during which panelists were provided with freshly opened Acqua Panna water as palate cleaner. The collected texture and sensory data showed relevant correlations and hence could be used both to draw similar conclusions. Shown below is a correlation of interest linking the Hardness 1 parameter of the texture analysis with the Firmness attribute of the sensory assessment.

Example 5

Comparison of prototype hardness results by texture analysis with pork belly animal fat reference

Figure 2 shows a comparison of the best-in-class recipe (prototype B) versus the other variants of the plan and the reference pork belly animal fat when measured for the Hardness parameter as determined by the TPA method. Texture data, acquired according to the methodology described herein, were processed with Excel. The "SD" (Standard Deviation) is plotted to the bar charts to show the replicates variability. Each measurement has been performed on 5 replicates to generate the averages and standard deviations reported on the graph. SD bars overlapping between 2 samples signifies the prototypes are not significantly different from each other. Recipe B thus performs in a similar manner in terms of hardness to the reference pork belly animal fat.

The graphs below show how each recipe parameter of the experimental plan varies the hardness of the samples and demonstrate why B recipe is confirmed as the best-in-class recipe to mimic the reference pork belly animal fat. For each graph the hardness is reported in (g) unit on the Y axis, while the recipe parameter that is varied is reported on the X axis. All the sample measurements were performed in 5 replicates to generate the averages and standard deviations shown on the graphs below.

Figure 3 shows a comparison of recipe B, which contains 3.0% KGM, versus recipes containing different KGM concentrations (1.5% & 4.5%) and the reference pork belly animal fat, when measured for hardness parameter as determined by the TPA method. In the recipe, only the KGM concentration is varying, and water is used as filler to compensate for the differing KGM concentration variations.

As shown on the graph, using 3.0% of KGM performs in a similar manner to the reference pork belly animal fat, while using 1.5% and 4.5% of KGM provide a negative impact on hardness parameter, respectively too low and too high compared to the animal reference. Consequently, the 3.0% KGM concentration is confirmed as the suitable level in the best-in- class recipe B.

Figure 4 shows a comparison of recipe B, which contains 0.30% of potassium carbonate, versus recipes containing different potassium carbonate concentrations (0.15% & 0.45%) and the reference pork belly animal fat, when measured for hardness parameter determined with TPA method. In the recipe, only the potassium carbonate concentration is varying, and the water ingredient is used as filler to compensate the potassium carbonate concentration variations.

As shown on the figure, 0.30% potassium carbonate performs in a similar manner to the reference pork belly animal fat, while using 0.15% and 0.45% of potassium carbonate provides a negative impact on hardness parameter, respectively too low and too high compared to the animal reference. Consequently, 0.30% potassium carbonate concentration is confirmed as the suitable level in the best-in-class recipe B.

Figure 5 shows a comparison of recipe B, which contains the Waxy Maize starch, versus recipes containing different types of starch (Mung Bean starch, Tapioca starch, Potato starch) and the reference pork belly animal fat, when measured for hardness parameter determined with TPA method. In the recipe, only the type of starch is varying (concentration kept at 5.0%, as for recipe B).

As shown on the figure, using Waxy Maize starch performs in a similar manner to the reference pork belly animal fat, while Mung Bean, Tapioca or Potato starch provide a negative impact on hardness parameter, significantly too high compared to the animal reference. Consequently, Waxy Maize starch is confirmed as the suitable type of starch in the best-in- class recipe B.

Figure 6 shows a comparison of recipe B, which contains 5.0% of Waxy Maize starch, versus recipes containing different Waxy Maize Starch concentrations (0.0% & 10.0%) and the reference pork belly animal fat, when measured for hardness parameter determined with TPA method. In the recipe, only the Waxy Maize starch concentration is varying, and the water ingredient is used as filler to compensate the Waxy Maize starch concentration variations. As shown on the figure, using 5.0% of Waxy Maize starch performs in a similar manner to the reference pork belly animal fat, while using 0.0% and 10.0% of Waxy Maize starch provides a negative impact on hardness parameter, respectively too high and too low compared to the animal reference. Consequently, the 5.0% Waxy Maize starch concentration is confirmed as the suitable level in the best-in-class recipe B.

Figure 7 shows a comparison of recipe B, which contains 5.0% lipid (HOSO), versus recipes containing different lipid concentrations (0.0% & 10.0%) and the reference pork belly animal fat, when measured for hardness parameter determined with TPA method. In the recipe, only the lipid content is varying, and the water ingredient is used as filler to compensate the lipid concentration variations.

As shown on the graph, using 5.0% lipid performs in a similar manner to the reference pork belly animal fat, while using 0.0% and 10.0% lipid negatively impacts the hardness parameter, respectively too high and too low compared to the animal reference. Consequently, the 5.0% lipid concentration is confirmed as the suitable level in the best-in-class recipe B.

Example 6

Comparison of prototype sensory results with pork belly animal fat reference

Sensory data, acquired according to the methodology described in example 1, were processed with EyeOpenR ® software (Logic 8, Elst, the Netherlands). The "LSD" (Least significant difference) is plotted on the bar charts to show a proxy of the panel intra variability. The confidence level was set to 5 % (p-value < 0.05). LSD bars overlapping signifies the prototypes are not significantly different from each other.

For these sensory comparisons of prototypes versus the reference pork belly animal fat, the firmness attribute has been removed from the results interpretation since it correlates very closely with the hardness determined with TPA (see example 4) which is described herein.

Figure 8 shows a comparison of recipe B, which contains 3.0% of KGM, versus recipe A and C, which respectively contain 1.5% and 4.5% of KGM, and the reference pork belly animal fat, when assessed with sensory RATA method described in example 4. In the recipe, only the concentration of KGM is varying, and the water ingredient is used as filler to compensate the KGM concentration variations.

As shown on the figure, using 3.0% of KGM performs in a similar manner to the reference pork belly animal fat, for all sensory attributes (LSD bars are overlapping for all sensory attributes); while using 1.5% or 4.5% of KGM provides a negative impact on sensory properties. The Moist release, Elastic, Crumbly, Pieces, Compact and Chewy attributes clearly show the benefit of using 3.0% KGM concentration compared to 1.5% or 4.5%.

Consequently, 3.0% KGM concentration was confirmed as the suitable level for the best-in- class recipe B.

Figure 9 shows a comparison of recipe B, which contains the Waxy Maize starch, versus recipe F containing Mung Bean starch and the reference pork belly animal fat, when assessed with sensory RATA method described in example 4. In the recipe, only the nature of starch is varying (concentration kept at 5.0%, as for recipe B).

As shown on the figure, using Waxy Maize starch performs in a similar manner to the reference pork belly animal fat, for all sensory attributes (LSD bars are overlapping for all sensory attributes); while using Mung Bean starch provides a negative impact on sensory properties. The Moist release, Elastic, Pieces, Compact and Moist attributes clearly show the benefit of using Waxy Maize starch compared to Mung Bean starch. Consequently, the Waxy Maize starch is confirmed as the suitable type of starch for the best-in-class recipe B.

Figure 10 shows a comparison of recipe B, which contains 5.0% of Waxy Maize starch, versus recipe I and J, which respectively contain 0.0% and 10.0% of Waxy Maize starch, and the reference pork belly animal fat, when assessed with sensory RATA method described in example 4. In the recipe, only the concentration of Waxy Maize starch is varying, and the water ingredient was used as filler to compensate the Waxy Maize starch concentration variations.

As shown on the figure, using 5.0% of Waxy Maize starch performs in a similar manner to the reference pork belly animal fat, for all sensory attributes (LSD bars are overlapping for all sensory attributes); while using 0.0% or 10.0% of Waxy Maize starch provides a negative impact on sensory properties. The Moist release, Elastic, Crumbly, Pieces, Compact, Chewy and Sticky attributes clearly show the benefit of using 5.0% Waxy Maize starch concentration compared to 0.0% or 10.0%. Consequently, the 5.0% Waxy Maize starch concentration was confirmed as the suitable level for the best-in-class recipe B.

Figure 11 shows a comparison of recipe B, which contains 5.0% lipid, versus recipe K and L, which respectively contain 0.0% and 10.0% lipid, and the reference pork belly animal fat, when assessed with sensory RATA method described in example 4. In the recipe, only the concentration of lipids is varying, and the water ingredient is used as filler to compensate the Waxy Maize starch concentration variations.

As shown on the figure, using 5.0% lipid performs in a similar manner to the reference pork belly animal fat, for all sensory attributes (LSD bars are overlapping for all sensory attributes); while using 0.0% or 10.0% lipid provides a negative impact on sensory properties. The Moist release, Elastic, Crumblyness, Pieces, Compact, Chewy and Sticky attributes clearly show the benefit of using 5.0% lipid concentration compared to 0.0% or 10.0%. Consequently, the 5.0% lipid concentration was confirmed as the suitable level for the best-in-class recipe B.