FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the provision of fat tissue mimetics for non-animal foodstuffs. In particular, it relates to the provision of fat tissue mimetics that share similar, or the same, characteristics and/or properties as the animal derived fat tissue that they are intended to replace.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Meat is considered the highest quality protein source, not only due to its nutritional characteristics, but also for its appreciated taste. Meat is nutritious because meat protein contains all essential amino acids for humans. In addition, meat comprises essential vitamins, such as vitamin B12, and is rich in minerals. Meat also contains fat tissue which greatly contributes to food acceptability by imparting specific characteristics such as appearance, texture, and mouthfeel. The fat tissue also contributes to the properties of the meat as it is prepared and cooked, for example in the way it releases fat, shrinks, and undergoes colour change during cooking.

However, from a health point of view, an excessive intake of meat products cannot be recommended, especially because the fat tissue in meat contains cholesterol and a higher proportion of saturated fats.

Further, due to animal diseases such as mad cow disease, a global shortage of animal protein, growing consumer demand for religious (halal or kosher) food, and for economic reasons, there is an increased interest in the consumption of non-meat proteins by consuming meat analogues instead of actual meat products.

Meat analogues are prepared such that they resemble meat as much as possible in appearance, taste and texture. Meat analogues are typically prepared from proteinaceous fibres of non-animal origin. Proteinaceous fibres, such as texturized vegetable protein, are characterized by having an identifiable structure and a structural integrity, such that each unit will withstand hydration, cooking and other procedures used in preparing the fibres for consumption.

The present innovation seeks to help consumers move away from animal based diets to meat analogues. It is widely accepted that such a change in consumption is beneficial in many ways. The meat industry is detrimental to the environment and is hugely inefficient compared to the production of crops for plant based diets. Moreover, as mentioned, animal derived fat tissues are known to contain components such as cholesterol and saturated fats which are a significant health risk factor whereas non-animal based food products are healthier, and moreover can be produced far more efficiently and in a sustainable and environmentally acceptable manner.

Although many consumers are motivated to independently move to a plant based diet, other consumers face significant challenges when giving up animal based foodstuffs. A central challenge for providing acceptable non-animal based foodstuffs (also known as meat analogues) is to ensure they mimic as closely as possible the animal based foodstuffs they are replacing. As will be appreciated however, meats are derived from animals and it is not straightforward to provide non-animal alternatives. Meat products are made from the muscle tissue of animals and as such represent a complex interaction between the protein-based part of the tissue (i.e. the connective muscle fibres) and the fat tissue that is found within the musculature (i.e. the intramuscular fat).

The appearance of fat in meat is very important as it cues meat quality, product identify, and provides meat products with the necessary organoleptic properties. Indeed, animal derived fat tissues have specific characteristics and properties. These are perceivable both in the raw and cooked form. Before cooking, animal derived fat tissues have a characteristic visual appearance such as being smooth, white in colour, and opaque. They provide haptic properties such as being cool to the touch, firm, yielding to pressure, returning slowly to their original conformation after pressure has been applied, and are non friable. Animal derived fat tissues are also perceivable in the meat product as an integral part of the tissues, for example as the marbling of fat in raw products such as steaks or as the white pieces of fat in processed products such as pepperoni. It is also present as veining of fats in cooked products such as the cold cuts of ham that are taken from cooked pork. Moreover, the properties of the fat tissue change during cooking. As animal derived fat tissues are subjected to cooking temperatures the fats they contain melt and are released from the tissue and the tissue shrinks. Animal derived fat tissues also undergo chemical changes, including Maillard reactions, to provide crisping, browning, aromas and distinct flavours.

The objective of this invention is therefore to design a non-animal derived fat tissue mimetic that closely mimics animal derived fat tissues in terms of its characteristics and properties before, during and after cooking. Moreover, the fat tissue mimetic of the present invention must also be suitable for use in the manufacture of meat analogues, for example it must be processable under the same conditions as the other components of meat analogues and must adhere to and/or integrate with those other components during manufacture, storage, transport, cooking, and consumption.

Providing a fat tissue mimetic that closely mimics animal derived fat tissues is particularly challenging because animal fat tissue is an extremely complex, organically grown tissue, that is structured from closely packed fat particles which are embedded in connective tissue in a fibrillar network of proteins. It is this complex structure that delivers the properties that consumers expect from meat-based foodstuffs and it something that is very difficult to reproduce in non-animal based products.

The prior art records several attempts to deliver replacements to animal derived fat tissues. However, these disclosures are not directed to the object of the present invention. Instead, they are intended to reduce fat levels in meat based products by providing a gelled system that can then be incorporated back into animal meats to deliver a lower animal fat final product. Such disclosures include the following patent applications: US4427704 discloses edible materials containing a thickened or gelled phase comprising a mixture or a reaction product of at least one carrageenan and at least one glucomannan, wherein the gelled phase may be either a thermo-irreversible gel or a thermo-reversible gel and the pH of the edible material is below 8; CN112655896 discloses carrageenan and konjac glucomannan composite gum for meat products and a preparation process thereof; US5358731 discloses a process for producing processed minced meat foods comprising adding from 0.01 to 0.04 parts by weight of an alkaline substance to an aqueous sol containing at least 1 part by weight of konjak mannan, 0.2 to 10 parts by weight of other gel-forming materials and 15 to 50 parts by weight of water, mixing the resulting swollen gel with minced meat and, optionally other food ingredients, and then freezing the resulting mixture; KR20160116551 relates to a method for making a fat substitute containing methylcellulose and a low-fat hamburger patty using the same and, more specifically, to a method for making a fat substitute containing methylcellulose, wherein a fat substitute composition prepared by mixing methylcellulose, carrageenan, and glucomannan is mixed with purified water at a predetermined ratio, thereby preparing a fat substitute, and to a low-fat hamburger patty using the same; KR20170066291 also relates to a method to manufacture a fat substitution containing methyl cellulose and a low-fat hamburger patty using the same; CN 107259442 discloses a compounded gel used as fat substitute and a processing method comprising the steps of material choosing, cutting, preserving, sausage filling, and baking or air-drying, wherein chosen materials comprise a main material, an auxiliary material and an additive, and the main material comprises 8-10 parts by weight of pork and 0.9-2.5 parts by weight of the compounded gel; and CN 109619440 discloses a compound sausage water-retaining agent. EP 2 951 236 relates to a combination of cellulose ether and natural gums useful as sausage additive, more specifically as a binder for sausage-type meat products. The disclosure provides examples of sausages comprising both carageen and konjac gum which are present in a weight ratio of 1 :1.

As stated, all the foregoing disclosures are directed to providing compositions to replace fat in meat based products. They are not intended to provide a fat tissue mimetic that replaces the animal based fat tissue but that still provides healthier fat and that retains the characteristics of said animal based fat tissue and, moreover, the compositions disclosed are not intended for and/or are not suitable for use in meat analogues. Additionally, they do not contain the features of the invention - in particular they do not disclose the presence of aquafaba as claimed herein below. For the avoidance of doubt, the present invention is not directed to removing fat from the final products. Rather, the present invention recognises that fat is an important constituent of the final products and is required during cooking and consumption to deliver the required characteristics and properties that are expected by consumers. It is an object of the present invention to provide an improved fat tissue mimetic that contains a fat that is healthier yet that also delivers the characteristics and properties of animal based fat tissue.

In contrast to the foregoing prior art, certain applications are directed towards providing meat substitute compositions such as WO13010042 which discloses embodiments in which the meat substitute product contains no methylcellulose, no carrageenan, no caramel color, no konjac flour, no gum arabic, and no acacia gum. WO2021110760 relates to a dry composition to produce a plant-based food product. The composition comprises a mixture of ingredients including carrageenan, cellulose ether glucomannan, at least one plant based protein, starch and potassium chloride. Although the foregoing are alleged to provided meat substitute compositions, they do not however provide fat tissue mimetics as defined herein.

The field has recently advanced further and vegan products containing good quality fat tissue mimetics are now available to the public from supermarkets. One of the best performing fat mimetics is exemplified by the “Vegetarische Slager Vegan specktakel” product recently launched in The Netherlands by The Vegetarian Butcher which utilises a gelling system comprising konjac and carrageenan in the fat tissue mimetic to deliver excellent properties which mimic many of the characteristics and properties of animal based fat tissue.

However, the inventors have now surprisingly found through extensive research that an even higher quality fat tissue mimetic can be produced if aquafaba is employed. In this way, the present invention makes it possible to deliver a fat tissue mimetic that is both easily processed and that has the required characteristics and properties before, during and after cooking as set out below.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In a first aspect, the present invention therefore provides a fat tissue mimetic comprising from 2 to 70 wt% of fat; from 1 to 20 wt% of structurant; and from 0.1 to 10 wt% of aquafaba. Preferably the fat tissue mimetic comprises from 0.2 to 9 wt% of aquafaba.

Preferably the aquafaba is pulse seed aquafaba.

Preferably the aquafaba is lentil or chickpea aquafaba.

Preferably the fat tissue mimetic comprises from 4 to 60 wt% fat.

Preferably the melting point of the fat is from -30°C to 55°C.

Preferably the fat is linseed oil, castor oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, rapeseed oil, olive oil, or a mixture thereof.

Preferably the fat tissue mimetic comprises from 1 .5 to 15 wt% structurant.

Preferably the structurant comprises one or more gelling agents.

Preferably the one or more gelling agents are present in an amount of from 0.1 to 5 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic.

Preferably the gelling agent comprises a combination of konjac and carrageenan.

Preferably the structurant of the fat tissue mimetic comprises one or more stabilisers.

Preferably the stabiliser is methylcellulose.

Preferably the fat tissue mimetic comprises one or more thickeners.

Preferably the fat tissue mimetic comprises one or more thickeners in an amount of from 0.25 to 4 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic.

Preferably the fat tissue mimetic comprises one or more emulsifiers. Preferably the fat tissue mimetic comprises one or more emulsifiers in an amount of from 0.5 to 5 wt%,

Preferably the one or more emulsifiers comprise soy protein, lecithin, or a combination thereof.

In a second aspect, the present invention provides a meat analogue comprising the fat tissue mimetic of the first aspect.

Preferably the meat analogue is a bacon meat analogue or a pepperoni meat analogue.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides a fat tissue mimetic comprising: 2-70wt% of fat; 1-20wt% of structurant; and 0.1-10 wt% of aquafaba, wherein the structurant comprises from 0.2 to 5 wt% of one or more gelling agents, the gelling agents comprise a combination of konjac and carrageenan, and the weight ratio of carrageenan to konjac in the fat tissue mimetic is greater than 1 :1.. The invention also provides a process for preparing the fat tissue mimetic and a meat analogue comprising the fat tissue mimetic.

FAT TISSUE MIMETIC

The invention provides a fat tissue mimetic. The term “fat tissue mimetic” means a composition capable of and suitable for replacing animal derived fat tissues in the context of meat analogue compositions. The term “meat analogue” as used herein refers to hydrated proteinaceous food products that comprise non-meat protein as protein source, and are similar, at least in part, to real meat in appearance, colour, flavour and texture.

As defined herein, a fat tissue mimetic does not merely replace animal fat per se, what the fat tissue mimetic of the present invention surprisingly achieves is that it provides a relatively simple formulation which is easy to process and that moreover provides a structure within which healthy, unsaturated (PUFA, MUFA), low melting point fats may be provided. Additionally, said fat tissue mimetic is capable of providing the same or similar characteristics and/or properties as the animal derived fat tissue that it is intended to replace in a meat analogue.

AQUAFABA

The invention has surprisingly found that when aquafaba is used in a fat tissue mimetic, the resultant product has excellent properties that provide qualities similar to animal derived fat tissue and is superior to fat tissues mimetics currently available on the market. Remarkably, the aquafaba appears capable of imparting surprising properties such as frying behaviour, fat release, colour change, and shrinking when the fat tissue mimetic is cooked. It will be appreciated that all these properties are characteristic of animal derived fat tissues. To the best knowledge of the inventors, there are no fat tissues mimetics that contain aquafaba.

Aquafaba is the liquid that remains after cooking of legume seeds (Fabaceae). It is a unique material because of the mixture of protein I polysaccharide conjugates that are formed during the production of aquafaba that appear to make the material particularly and unexpectedly suitable for use in fat tissue mimetics.

The fat tissue mimetic therefore comprises from 0.1 to 10 wt% aquafaba, preferably from 0.2 to 9 wt%, more preferably from 0.3 to 8 wt%, more preferably still from 0.4 to 7 wt%, yet more preferably from 0.5 to 6 wt%, yet more preferably still from 0.75 to 5 wt%, even more preferably from 1 to 4 wt%, even more preferably still from 1.5 to 3 wt%, most preferably the fat tissue mimetic comprises from 2 to 3 wt% aquafaba.

The aquafaba may be in dry or liquid form. Throughout this application, it is the dry weight of aquafaba that is given, unless otherwise indicated. If aquafaba is used in the liquid form, it is the dry weight of the aquafaba that is stated in this application (i.e. not including the free water component) unless otherwise indicated. Preferably the aquafaba is used in a dry form.

The aquafaba that is used in the present invention is preferably pulse seed aquafaba. It is preferably selected from the group consisting of chickpea aquafaba, white bean aquafaba, pea aquafaba, lentil aquafaba, soybean aquafaba, kidney bean aquafaba, black bean aquafaba or mixtures thereof. More preferably, the aquafaba powder is chickpea aquafaba or lentil aquafaba. Most preferably, the aquafaba powder is chickpea aquafaba.

The aquafaba preferably comprises protein in an amount of from 15 to 35 wt%, more preferably from 20 to 30 wt%, most preferably about 25 wt%.

The aquafaba preferably comprises carbohydrates in an amount of from 45 to 75 wt%, more preferably from 50 to 70 wt%, more preferably still from 55 to 65 wt%, most preferably about 60 wt%.

Aquafaba can suitably be produced by a person skilled in the art. The legumes are heated at a temperature of from 60 to 160°C, preferably boiled, e.g. for a period of from 2 minutes to 20 hours, and separated from the cooking liquid. It can be preferred that the legumes are heated in water at 70 to 160°C for 15 minutes to 20 hours, preferably at 80 to 130°C for 30 minutes to 10 hours, preferably from 30 minutes to 5 hours. The skilled person will understand that lower temperatures require a higher time period and vice versa. The resulting liquid is then concentrated and then dried. This can be done for example by air drying or spray drying, as known in the art. Aquafaba in dry form can also easily be supplied from commercial manufacturers, for example from Ddhler or VOR as known to the artisan.

FAT

The fat tissue mimetic comprises from 2 to 70 wt% of fat, preferably from 4 to 60 wt%, more preferably from 6 to 55 wt%, more preferably still from 8 to 50 wt%, yet more preferably from 10 to 45 wt%, yet more preferably still from 12 to 40 wt%, even more preferably from 15 to 35 wt%, even more preferably still from 17.5 to 30 wt%, most preferably the fat tissue mimetic comprises from 20 to 25 wt% of fat.

The term “fat” as used herein refers to glycerides selected from triglycerides, diglycerides, monoglycerides, phosphoglycerides and combinations thereof. The term “fat” encompasses fats that are liquid at ambient temperature as well as fats that are solid or semi-solid at ambient temperature. The melting point of a fat can be determined according to ISO 6321 (2021).

It is an object of this present invention to provide a fat mimetic that comprises healthy fats. By healthy fats is meant fats with a higher ratio of polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids relative to saturated fatty acids. Such healthy fats differ from the fats in animal derived fat tissues because these healthy fats have lower melting points than fats with high saturated fatty acid content and are typically liquid at ambient temperatures - i.e. oils. To combine such oils into a fat tissue mimetic is not straightforward, however, the present invention allows this to be achieved.

MELTING POINT OF FAT

The melting point of the fat is preferably from -30°C to 55°C, more preferably from - 27.5°C to 35°C, more preferably still from -25°C to 5°C, yet more preferably from -22.5°C to -5°C, yet more preferably still from -20°C to -10°C, most preferably the melting point of the fat is from -18°C to -15°C.

FAT TYPES

The fat may be selected from safflower oil, shea butter, allanblackia fat, linseed oil, castor oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, rapeseed oil, olive oil, tung oil, cotton seed oil, peanut oil, palm kernel oil, coconut oil, cocoa butter, and palm oil. The fat may also be a mixture thereof.

Preferably the fat is linseed oil, castor oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, rapeseed oil, olive oil, tung oil, cotton seed oil, peanut oil, or a mixture thereof.

More preferably the fat is linseed oil, castor oil, sunflower oil, soybean oil, rapeseed oil, olive oil, or a mixture thereof.

Most preferably the fat is sunflower oil.

RATIO FAT:AQUAFABA In an embodiment or the invention the fat tissue mimetic comprises a weight ratio of fat:aquafaba of from 2:1 to 50:1 , preferably from 3:1 to 25:1 , more preferably from 4:1 to 20:1 , most preferably from 5:1 to 15:1.

STRUCTURANTS

As used herein, the term structurants means ingredients capable of imparting structure to the formulation of the fat mimetic. As used herein, structurants are employed to provide the fat tissue mimetic of the invention with characteristics which further provide qualities similar to animal derived fat tissue. For example, the structurant may impart firmness in the fat tissue mimetic prior to cooking and also to the product when hot, i.e. during and after cooking. Structurants may also act as viscosifiers to facilitate production using extrusion techniques.

The fat tissue mimetic comprises from 1 to 20 wt% of structurant, preferably from 1.5 to 15 wt%, more preferably from 2 to 10 wt%, more preferably still from 2.5 to 7.5 wt%, yet more preferably from 3 to 6 wt%, most preferably the fat tissue mimetic comprises from 3.5 to 5 wt% of structurant.

Preferably structurant comprises one or more gelling agents, one or more stabilisers, or a mixture thereof. More preferably, the structurant comprises one or more gelling agents and one or more stabilisers. The gelling agents may be selected from the group comprising alginate, agar, xanthan, locust bean gum, gellan, pectin, guar gum, konjac, carrageenan, or a combination thereof. Preferably the gelling agents are selected from the group comprising konjac, carrageenan, or a combination thereof. More preferably the gelling agents are selected from the group consisting of konjac, carrageenan, and a combination thereof. Preferably the stabiliser is a cellulose based stabiliser, more preferably the stabiliser is methylcellulose.

GELLING AGENTS

Preferably the structurant of the fat tissue mimetic comprises one or more gelling agents wherein the one or more gelling agents are present in an amount of from 0.1 to 5 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic, more preferably from 0.25 to 4.5 wt%, more preferably still from 0.5 to 4 wt%, yet more preferably from 1 to 3.75 wt%, yet more preferably still from 1.5 to 3.5 wt%, even more preferably from 2 5 to 3.25 wt%, most preferably the one or more gelling agents are present in an amount of from 2.5 to 3 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic.

Preferably the one or more gelling agents comprise carrageenan wherein the carageen is present in an amount of from 0.1 to 5 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic, more preferably from 1.25 to 4 wt%, more preferably still from 1.5 to 3.5 wt%, yet more preferably from 1 .75 to 3.25 wt%, yet more preferably still from 2 to 3 wt%, even more preferably from 2 25 to 2.75 wt%, most preferably the carrageenan is present in an amount of about 2.5 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic.

By “carrageenan” is meant the natural linear sulfated polysaccharides that are extracted from red edible seaweeds that are widely used in the food industry, for their gelling, thickening, and stabilizing properties. Their main application is in dairy and meat products, due to their strong binding to food proteins. Carrageenans are anionic polysaccharides containing 15-40% ester-sulfate and are categorized into three different classes based on their sulfate content: Kappa-carrageenan has one sulfate group per disaccharide; iota-carrageenan has two; and lambda-carrageenan has three. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it has been found that carrageenan acts as a cold gelling agent in the fat tissue mimetic and therefore is believed to impart firmness prior to cooking and delivers bite to the product when cold.

Preferably the one or more gelling agents comprise konjac wherein the konjac is present in an amount of from 0.1 to 3 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic, more preferably from 0.2 to 2 wt%, more preferably still from 0.3 to 1.5 wt%, yet more preferably from 0.35 to 1.25 wt%, yet more preferably still from 0.4 to 1 wt%, even more preferably from 0.45 to 0.75 wt%, most preferably the konjac is present in an amount of about 0.5 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic.

By “konjac” is meant konjac mannan, a water-soluble hydrocolloid obtained from the flour of the A. konjac plant (i.e. the unpurified raw product from the root of the perennial plant Amorphophallus konjac), the main component of which is a high molecular weight polysaccharide glucomannan consisting of d-mannose and d-glucose units at a molar ratio of 1.6: 1.0, connected by (3(1 -4)-glycosidic bonds. The CAS registry number 37220- 17-0 and the EINECS No 253-404-6 correspond to konjac mannan, a term that covers for both konjac gum and konjac glucomannan. Konjac gum (E 425 i) and konjac glucomannan (E 425 ii) are distinguished in the definition regarding the main components (> 75% carbohydrate vs > 95% total dietary fibre on a dry weight basis) and in molecular weight. The glucomannan from konjac gum and from konjac glucomannan is composed of linear chains of (1 — 4)-linked mannopyranose and glucopyranose units with varying amounts of acetyl groups. Preferably the konjac is konjac gum. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it has been found that konjac also acts as a cold gelling agent in the fat tissue mimetic and therefore is believed to impart firmness prior to cooking and delivers bite to the product when cold. Moreover, the konjac is believed to also provide functionality as a viscosifier which facilitates pumping the fat tissue mimetic during coextrusions (e.g. bacon manufacture).

Preferably the gelling agent comprises a combination of konjac and carrageenan.

Where the gelling agents comprise a combination of konjac and carrageenan, the fat tissue mimetic preferably comprises konjac and carrageenan in a combined amount of from 1 to 5 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic, more preferably from 1.5 to 4.5 wt%, more preferably still from 1.75 to 4 wt%, yet more preferably from 2 to 3.5 wt%, yet more preferably still from 2.25 to 3.25 wt%, even more preferably from 2.5 to 3 wt%, most preferably the fat tissue mimetic comprises konjac and carrageenan in a combined amount of about 2.75 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic.

Preferably the weight ratio of carrageenan : konjac in the fat tissue mimetic is greater than 1 :1. Preferably the weight ratio of carrageenan : konjac is from 1.15:1 to 10:1 , more preferably from 1.25:1 to 7:1 , more preferably still from 1.5:1 to 6:1 , yet more preferably from 2:1 to 5:1 , yet more preferably still from 2:1 to 4:1 , even more preferably from 2:1 to 3:1 , most preferably about 2:1.

Preferably the weight ratio of carrageenan : konjac is at least 1 .15:1 , more preferably at least 1.25:1 , more preferably still at least 1.5:1 , most preferably at least 2:1. Preferably the weight ratio of carrageenan : konjac is at most 10:1 , more preferably at most 7:1 , more preferably still at most 6:1 , yet more preferably at most 5:1 , yet more preferably still at most 4:1 , most preferably at most 3:1.

STABILISERS

Preferably the structurant of the fat tissue mimetic comprises one or more stabilisers wherein the one or more stabilisers are present in an amount of from 0.25 to 10 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic, more preferably from 0.5 to 5 wt%, more preferably still from 0.75 to 2.75 wt%, yet more preferably from 1 to 2.5 wt%, yet more preferably still from 1 .25 to 2.25 wt%, even more preferably from 1 5 to 2 wt%, most preferably the one or more stabilisers are present in an amount of about 1 .75 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic.

Preferably the stabiliser is a cellulose based stabiliser, more preferably the stabiliser is methylcellulose. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that the methylcellulose acts as a thermo gelling agent and therefore imparts firmness after cooking and delivers bite to the cooked product when hot.

Preferably the structurant of the fat tissue mimetic comprises methylcellulose in an amount of from 0.25 to 5 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic, more preferably from 0.5 to 3 wt%, more preferably still from 0.75 to 2.75 wt%, yet more preferably from 1 to 2.5 wt%, yet more preferably still from 1.25 to 2.25 wt%, even more preferably from 1.5 to 2 wt%, most preferably the methylcellulose is present in an amount of about 1 .75 wt%.

Preferably the structurant comprises konjac, carrageenan and methylcellulose.

Preferably the structurant comprises konjac, carrageenan and methylcellulose in an amount of from 0.25 to 10 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic, more preferably from 0.5 to 5 wt%, more preferably still from 0.75 to 2.75 wt%, yet more preferably from 1 to 2.5 wt%, yet more preferably still from 1.25 to 2.25 wt%, even more preferably from 1 5 to 2 wt%, most preferably the one or more stabilisers are present in an amount of about 1 .75 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic.

THICKENER The fat tissue mimetic may also comprise one or more thickeners, preferably a starch based thickener such as an oat fibre or a potato starch based thickener, more preferably a potato starch based thickener. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that the one or more thickeners act to bind free water and therefore prevent softness caused by higher levels or water however, in the aquafaba containing formulation of the present invention, the thickener surprisingly achieves this without impacting the functionality of the aquafaba or the stabiliser(s) discussed above. Moreover, the thickener also remarkably achieves the foregoing without altering the properties imparted on the fat tissue mimetic by the aquafaba and the stabiliser(s), namely the frying behaviour as described herein.

Preferably the fat tissue mimetic comprises one or more thickeners in an amount of from 0 to 5 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic, more preferably from 0.25 to 4 wt%, more preferably still from 0.5 to 3 wt%, yet more preferably from 0.75 to 2.5 wt%, yet more preferably still from 1 to 2 wt%, even more preferably from 1.25 to 1.75 wt%, most preferably the one or more thickeners are present in an amount of about 1 .5 wt%.

Preferably the fat tissue mimetic comprises one or more thickeners in an amount of from 0 to 5 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic, more preferably from 0.25 to 4 wt%, more preferably still from 0.5 to 3 wt%, yet more preferably from 0.75 to 2.5 wt%, yet more preferably still from 1 to 2 wt%, even more preferably from 1.25 to 1.75 wt%, most preferably the one or more thickeners are present in an amount of about 1.5 wt%, wherein the one or more thickeners comprise starch based thickeners.

Preferably the fat tissue mimetic comprises one or more thickeners in an amount of from 0 to 5 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic, more preferably from 0.25 to 4 wt%, more preferably still from 0.5 to 3 wt%, yet more preferably from 0.75 to 2.5 wt%, yet more preferably still from 1 to 2 wt%, even more preferably from 1.25 to 1.75 wt%, most preferably the one or more thickeners are present in an amount of about 1.5 wt%, wherein the one or more thickeners comprise potato starch thickeners.

Preferably the fat tissue mimetic comprises one or more thickeners in an amount of from 0 to 5 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic, more preferably from 0.25 to 4 wt%, more preferably still from 0.5 to 3 wt%, yet more preferably from 0.75 to 2.5 wt%, yet more preferably still from 1 to 2 wt%, even more preferably from 1.25 to 1.75 wt%, most preferably the one or more thickeners are present in an amount of about 1.5 wt%, wherein the one or more thickeners is potato starch.

EMULSIFIER

The fat tissue mimetic may also comprise one or more emulsifiers.

Preferably the fat tissue mimetic comprises one or more emulsifiers in an amount of from 0 to 7 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic, more preferably from 0.5 to 5 wt%, more preferably still from 1. to 4 wt%, yet more preferably from 1.5 to 3.5 wt%, yet more preferably still from 2 to 3 wt%, even more preferably from 2.25 to 2.75 wt%, most preferably the one or more emulsifiers are present in an amount of about 2.5 wt%.

Preferably the one or more emulsifiers are derived from plant protein, preferably they are derived from plant protein isolates. Preferably the one or more emulsifiers are derived from chickpea, white bean aquafaba, pea, lentil, soybean, kidney bean, black bean, or mixtures thereof. Preferably the one or more emulsifiers comprise soy protein isolate. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that in the fat tissue mimetic of the present invention emulsifiers derived from plant protein, especially soy protein isolate are/is specifically suited to stabilise the oil droplets of the fat within the fat tissue mimetic. However, it has also been surprisingly found that elevated levels of emulsifiers derived from plant protein, especially soy protein isolate, actually act to entrap the oil droplets of the fat within the fat tissue mimetic which leads to a reduction of the release of the fat upon cooking, whereas fat release is one of the most important properties of the fat tissue mimetic of the present invention.

Therefore, the fat tissue mimetic preferably comprises emulsifiers derived from plant protein, more preferably soy protein or soy protein isolate, in an amount of from 0.25 to 6 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic, more preferably from 0.5 to 5 wt%, more preferably still from 1 . to 4 wt%, yet more preferably from 1 .5 to 3.5 wt%, yet more preferably still from 2 to 3 wt%, even more preferably from 2.25 to 2.75 wt%, most preferably the soy protein or soy protein isolate is present in an amount of about 2.5 wt%. Additionally, the one or more emulsifiers preferably comprise lecithin. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that in the fat tissue mimetic of the present invention lecithin acts as an emulsifier (or as a co-emulsifier with any other emulsifiers present) but rather than stabilising the fat droplets it acts to weaken the emulsion and therefore allows enhanced fat release. However, it has also been discovered that lecithin acts in combination with the aquafaba in such a way that the emulsion of the fat tissue mimetic may become so destabilised that the required organoleptic properties are lost.

Therefore, the fat tissue mimetic preferably comprises lecithin in an amount of from 0.05 to 2 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic, more preferably from 0.1 to 1.75 wt%, more preferably still from 0.2 to 1.5 wt%, yet more preferably from 0.2.5 to 1 .25 wt%, yet more preferably still from 0.3 to 1 wt%, even more preferably from 0.4 to 0.75 wt%, most preferably the lecithin is present in an amount of about 0.5 wt%.

RATIO LECITHIN:AQUAFABA

In an embodiment of the invention the weight ratio of lecithin:aquafaba is greater than 1 :10, preferably greater than 1 :8, more preferably greater than 1 :6, more preferably still greater than 1 :5, yet more preferably greater than 1 :4, most preferably about 1 :3.

PROTEIN

The fat tissue mimetic may comprise from 1 to 20 wt% of protein (in addition to any proteins derived from the foregoing sources), preferably from 1.25 to 17.5 wt%, more preferably from 1.5 to 15 wt%, more preferably still from 2 to 12.5 wt%, yet more preferably from 2.5 to 7.5 wt%, most preferably the fat tissue mimetic comprises from 3 to 5 wt% of protein.

The fat tissue mimetic may comprise at least 1 wt% of protein, preferably at least 1.25 wt%, more preferably at least 1.5 wt%, more preferably still at least 2 wt%, yet more preferably at least 2.5 wt%, most preferably the fat tissue mimetic comprises at least 3 wt% of protein. PROTEIN - TYPES

The protein is preferably selected from dairy protein, egg protein, plant protein, fungal protein or combinations thereof.

Examples of dairy protein are casein, whey protein and combinations thereof.

Examples of egg protein are proteins that are present in a chicken egg, such as egg yolk protein of egg white protein. Preferably the egg protein is egg white protein.

Examples of fungal protein are mushroom proteins or the proteins obtained from the fungi Fusarium. Preferably, the fungal protein is obtained from the fungi Fusarium, more preferably the fungal protein is obtained from the fungal species Fusarium venenatum. These Fusarium venenatum proteins are typically applied in Quorn® products.

Preferably the proteins are plant proteins. The plant proteins may be cereal protein, rapeseed protein, cottonseed protein, sunflower protein, sesame protein, lupin protein, potato protein and algae protein. Preferred plant proteins are wheat protein, oat protein, bran protein and combinations thereof. More preferred plant proteins are wheat protein and combinations thereof.

RATIO OF EMULSIFIERS DERIVED FROM PLANT PROTEIN : FAT

In an embodiment of the invention the weight ratio of the one or more emulsifiers derived from plant protein : fat is from 1 :50 to 1 :2, preferably from 1 :40 to 1 :4, more preferably from 1 :30 to 1 :6, more preferably still from 1 :20 to 1 :8, most preferably from 1 :15 to 1 :10.

FLAVOURS / SALTS / PRESERVATIVES

It has been found that the fat tissue mimetic has good taste and therefore flavours are not necessarily required. Nevertheless, dependant on the application of the fat tissue (i.e. the meat analogue that will comprise the fat tissue mimetic), the fat tissue mimetic may also comprise flavour components. The fat tissue mimetic therefore preferably comprises from 1 to 5 wt% of a flavour or flavours, more preferably from 1.5 to 4 wt%, more preferably still from 2 to 3 wt%, most preferably about 2.5 wt%. The fat tissue mimetic may also comprise salt or salts. The fat tissue mimetic preferably comprises from 0.5 to 5 wt% salt, more preferably from 1 to 4 wt%, more preferably still from 1.5 to 3 wt%, most preferably about 2 wt%.

It has been found that the fat tissue is remarkably stable, therefore only low levels of a preservative system are required. Moreover, any preservative system can be very simple. The fat tissue mimetic may therefore also comprise a preservative system, preferably the preservative system comprises or consists of only citric-acid and/or lactic acid. The fat tissue mimetic preferably comprises from 0.5 to 5 wt% of said preservatives, more preferably from 1 to 4 wt%, more preferably still from 1.5 to 3 wt%, most preferably about 2 wt%.

PROCESS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF THE FAT TISSUE MIMETIC

The fat tissue mimetic has been found to be remarkably simple to prepare. The fat tissue mimetic of the first aspect may be prepared as follows.

The aquafaba and any emulsifiers are hydrated with about 2 thirds of the total water in the formulation for about at least 2 hours to create a hydrated mix.

The hydrated mix is then combined with the fat under high shear mixing for about at least 5 minutes to create an emulsion.

The remaining dry ingredients are mixed and blended together to create a homogeneous dry component mixture.

The remaining about 1 third of the total water is then added to the emulsion, preferably in the form of ice, along with any remaining liquid ingredients, and the dry component mixture. This is then mixed thoroughly thereby to create a dough.

The dough is then cooked, preferably by steam cooking, preferably at a temperature of about 95°C preferably for about 1.5 hours thereby to form the fat tissue mimetic of the present invention. In this way, a high quality fat tissue mimetic is produced.

MEAT ANALOGUES COMPRISING THE FAT TISSUE MIMETIC

The fat tissue mimetic of the invention may be combined in a meat analogue product to deliver realistic and consumer acceptable performance that is akin to animal derived fat tissues. The fat tissue mimetic may be layered with other proteinaceous components to create bacon-like meat analogues. It has been found that the fat tissue mimetic of the present invention is particularly suitable for co-extrusion with the proteinaceous components, thus providing a product that is not only very similar to the meat based product, but is also easy to process on an industrial scale.

Preferably the meat analogue comprises from 10 to 90 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic more preferably from 20 to 80 wt%, more preferably still from 30 to 70 wt%, yet more preferably from 40 to 60 wt%, yet more preferably still from 45 to 55 wt%, most preferably about 50 wt%.

Preferably the meat analogue comprises at least 10 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic, more preferably at least 20 wt%, more preferably still at least 30 wt, yet more preferably at least 40 wt%, most preferably at least 45 wt%.

Preferably the meat analogue comprises at most 90 wt% of the fat tissue mimetic, more preferably at most 80 wt%, more preferably still at most 70 wt%, yet more preferably at most 60 wt%, most preferably at most 55 wt%.

The fat tissue mimetic may also be chopped into smaller pieces and combined with other proteinaceous components to create sausage-like meat analogues. It has been found that the fat tissue mimetic of the present invention is particularly suitable for the creation of small “fat-like” pieces that, when combined with proteinaceous components and extruded through a casing apparatus (such as a sausage-making machine), create distinct visual cues to the consumer and hence provided a product that is very similar to the meat based product. The fat tissue mimetic of the invention is particularly suitable for pepperoni type products. It may also be used to create meat analogues of cold-cuts such as sliced ham or sliced beef which are characterised by the veining of fats within the muscle structure.

In view of the carefully controlled and designed composition of the fat tissue mimetic, the cooking behaviour of the fat tissue mimetic is also comparable to animal based fat tissues.

Preferably the meat analogue is a bacon and/or pepperoni meat analogue.

As used herein the term “comprising” encompasses the terms “consisting essentially of” and “consisting of”. Where the term “comprising” is used, the listed steps or options need not be exhaustive.

Unless otherwise specified, numerical ranges expressed in the format "from x to y" are understood to include x and y. In specifying any range of values or amounts, any particular upper value or amount can be associated with any particular lower value or amount.

Except in the examples and comparative experiments, or where otherwise explicitly indicated, all numbers are to be understood as modified by the word “about”.

All percentages and ratios contained herein are calculated by weight unless otherwise indicated.

As used herein, the indefinite article “a” or “an” and its corresponding definite article “the” means at least one, or one or more, unless specified otherwise.

The various features of the present invention referred to in individual sections above apply, as appropriate, to other sections mutatis mutandis. Consequently, features specified in one section may be combined with features specified in other sections as appropriate. Any section headings are added for convenience only and are not intended to limit the disclosure in any way. The examples are intended to illustrate the invention and are not intended to limit the invention to those examples perse.

EXAMPLES

FORMULATIONS

Table 1 shows the formulations tested. Formulations A-J were comparative examples and did not contain Aquafaba, formulations 1-23 contained aquafaba. In all cases, the balance of the ingredients (i.e. to amount to a total wt% of 100) was water.

Notably, alternative sources of aquafaba were assessed in the following samples:

Samples 17 & 18: Utilised aquafaba made in situ whereby 500 g of Chickpea pitpit (origin Turkey (Kabuli)) or lentil (origin Albert Heijn supermarket) respectively were added to 2000 g water and soaked overnight at 5°C. After soaking overnight, 200 g of soaked beans with 300 g soaking water was placed in a 500 mL glass jar. The glass jar was heated to 120°C in a bench top autoclave for 30s. After cooling, the aquafaba (water only part) was collected and used for sample production. The dry weight of the aquafaba was determined for both chickpea and lentil, therefore 30 wt% of the liquid aquafabas used in the formulations equated to 1 .3 wt% dry chickpea aquafaba and 3.8 wt% dry lentil aquafaba.

Sample 19 utilised liquid chickpea aquafaba (source: Sesajal, Mexico). The dry weight of the aquafaba was determined, therefore 30 wt% of the aquafaba was used in the formulation equated to 2.3 wt% dry aquafaba.

Sample J: Utilised chickpea flour (source: Chickpea flour made from Chickpea pit-pit, origin Turkey (Kabuli), ground without dehulling) instead of aquafaba.

Abbreviations used in Table 1 and in the following results section are as follows: SFO - Sunflower Oil SPI - Soy Protein Isolate

- AF - Aquafaba

Lee - Lecithin MC - Methylcellulose

Konj - Konjac

Carr - Carrageenan

PS, Pot Starch - Potato Starch

FlavPres - Flavours, Preservatives

MATERIALS

The ingredients were as follows:

*Unless stated otherwise - e.g. where chickpea flour (Sample J); in situ aquafaba (Samples 17 & 18); or liquid aquafaba (Sample 19) was used.

PROCESSING

The formulations were prepared as follows:

Emulsifiers (where used, i.e. soy protein and/or lecithin) and the aquafaba (where used) were mixed with tap water using a whisk and left to pre-hydrate for 2 hours to create a hydrated mix. The water amount used was 2/3 of the total water of the formulation. The hydrated mix was then placed in the container of Thermomix (Vorwerk). Stirring was started with stirring speed 3, and the oil was slowly added for pre emulsification.

Once all oil was added, the speed was increased to 7 for 5 min to create an emulsion.

The remaining dry ingredients were mixed and blended together to create a homogeneous dry component mixture.

The remaining 1/3 of the water was then added as crushed ice to the emulsion along with the dry component mixture and the remining liquid ingredients (i.e. flavours, preservatives).

The mix was then processed at a speed of from 3 to 5 to disperse and homogeneously mix all ingredients at which point mixing was stopped to prevent overwork.

The resultant dough thus produced was then steam cooked by placing the dough in a cooking vacuum bag (400-500g) for vacuum sealing. The sealed dough was then cooked under 100% steam at 95°C for 1.5 hours.

After steam cooking, the cooked fat dough was allowed to cool to room temperature and then frozen at -20°C at least overnight before progressing to subsequent analysis as described below.

FORMULATIONS & SENSORY RESULTS

Table 1 - Formulations and Sensory Results * Sample J contained 3 wt% chickpea flour, not 3 wt% aquafaba.

SENSORY ANALYSIS

Frozen cooked fat tissue mimetics produced as described above were brought to room temperature about 1 hour before testing. Samples were sliced to a thickness of 2mm

For sensory observation for frying behavior, a nonstick pan was heated to 140°C, then slices of samples were added to the pan and baked for 90sec at 140°C on one side then turned over and cooked on the other side for another 90sec with observation.

During the frying process, fat release, shrinking and colour changes were assessed.

Additionally, the same sensory analysis was performed on the fat issue mimetic of the “Vegetarische Slager Vegan specktakel” product described above. This was treated as baseline for the performance of the fat issue mimetic of the present invention and was given the score of 1 .

The same sensory analysis was also performed on simple pork fat (Spek) obtained from Albert Heijn supermarket in The Netherlands. This was treated as the gold standard for the performance of a fat issue mimetic and was given the score of 5.

Therefore, the frying behaviour of the samples were quantified whereby anything with a score greater than 1 was better than one of the leading fat mimetics currently available on the market, and where higher scores identify products with sensory properties that are even closer to fat tissue directly derived from an animal (pork fat).

RESULTS

The characteristics and properties of the formulations were evaluated and the results are set out in Table 1 above and are discussed in further detail herein below. Since the performance of the fat tissue mimetics is predominantly based on the fat release and shrinkage of the samples, we ensure that in the following analyses of samples with and without aquafaba, only samples with the same amount fat are compared - for example, it would not be valid to compare the fat release in samples that originally contained differing amounts of fat (e.g. one would not compare Sample 1 with Sample A because Sample A contains far higher levels of fat [40 wt%] compared to Sample 1 [17 wt%]).

Sample 1 :

Sample 1 may be compared to Sample D and it can be seen that Sample 1 performed better for all the properties of fat release, shrinking, and colour change.

Sample 2:

Sample 2 may be compared to Sample F and it can be seen that, although the scores for shrinking were the same, Sample 2 performed better for the properties of fat release, and colour change.

Sample 3:

Sample 3 does not have a straightforward non-aquafaba sample for comparison, but comparisons may be found from the data.

Sample D had the same amount of SPI (6 wt%) and despite the fact that Sample D had higher Lee, MC, Carr & PS than Sample 3, nevertheless Sample 3 performed better then Sample D for all the properties of fat release, shrinking, and colour change.

Sample E had lower SPI but the same Lee (0%), Konj. (1 %), Carr (2%), and notably higher MC and PS. However, Sample 3 again performed better than Sample E for all the properties of fat release, shrinking, and colour change.

Sample G had the same MC (1.2%), Carr (2%), Pot Starch (1 %), lower SPI and higher Lee & Konj. Again, Sample 3 performed better then Sample G for all the properties of fat release, shrinking, and colour change.

Sample 4:

Sample 4 may be compared against Sample A or H. Sample A had the same SPI (6%), Lecithin (1 %), MC (1.2%), Carr (2%) and higher Konj than Sample 4, yet it can be seen that Sample 4 performed better than Sample A for all the properties of fat release, shrinking, and colour change.

Sample H had the same SPI (6%), MC (1.2%), Konj (0.3%), Pot Starch (5%) and higher Carr than Sample 4, yet Sample 4 again performed better than Sample H for all the properties of fat release, shrinking, and colour change.

Sample 5:

Sample 5 may be compared against Sample E or G.

Sample E had the same SPI (2.5%), Lecithin (0%), Pot Starch (5%) and higher MC yet Sample 5 performed better than Sample E for all the properties of fat release, shrinking, and colour change.

Sample G had the same SPI (2.5%), MC (1.2%) Konj (0.3%) and contained lecithin whereas Sample 5 did not. Moreover, Sample 5 contained 5 time more PS. Even so, Sample 5 performed better than Sample G for all the properties of fat release, shrinking, and colour change.

Sample 6:

There are no easy comparators for Sample 6 but it may be compared against certain non-aquafaba samples containing the same level (40%) of fat.

Firstly, Samples C or F may be used as comparators because they had the same level of SPI (2.5%) as Sample 6.

Sample C had the same SPI (2.5%), Carr (2%), and Pot Starch (5%) and it can be seen that Sample 6 performed better than Sample C for shrinking and colour change. Although Sample C had slightly better fat release, it cannot be said to be a better fat mimetic than Sample 6 because Sample C had such low scores for colour change, and to a lesser extent low scores for shrinking. Sample F had the same SPI (2.5%), Lecithin (1 %), and MC (2%) but Sample 6 performed better than Sample F for all the properties of fat release, shrinking, and colour change.

Secondly, Samples A or F can be compared against Sample 6 on the basis that they have the same level of Lecithin (1%).

Sample A had the same Lecithin (1 %), Konj (1 %), and Carr (2%) and higher SPI than Sample 6. It was found that Sample 6 performed better than Sample A for all the properties of fat release, shrinking, and colour change.

The superiority of Sample 6 over Sample F has been discussed above.

Thirdly, Sample F can be compared against Sample 6 because it had the same level of MC (2%). Again, the superiority of Sample 6 over Sample F has been discussed above.

Fourthly, Samples A and I can be compared against Sample 6 because they had the same level of Konj (1%).

The superiority of Sample 6 over Sample A has been discussed above.

Sample I had the same level of Konj (1%) & Carr (2%) and higher Lee than Sample 6. Sample 6 had superior fat release (note: shrinkage and colour change could not be compared because they were not measured for Sample I).

Fifthly, Sample 6 can be compared against all of Samples A, C, and I because they all had the same level of Carr (2%). The superiority of Sample 6 over all these Samples has been discussed above.

Sixthly, and finally, Samples C and H can be compared against Sample 6 because they had the same level of PS (5%). Again, the superiority of Sample 6 over these Samples has been discussed above.

Sample 7: Sample 7 may be compared against Sample I because they had similar SPI (6% v 4%), same Lecithin, similar MC (2% v 1.7%), contain Konjac (0.3% v 1 %), similar Carr (2.7% v 2%), and similar Pot starch (1 % v 1.25%). It can be seen that Sample 7 had superior fat release (note: shrinkage and colour change could not be compared because they were not measured for Sample I).

Sample 7 may also be compared against Samples A, F or H and it can be seen to have superior fat release, shrinkage and colour change over these samples.

Sample 8:

Sample 8 may be compared against Sample G which had the same SPI, Lecithin, MC, Konjac, similar Carr (2 v 2.7), and the same Pot starch. It can be seen that Sample 8 had the superior fat release, shrinkage and colour change results.

Sample 9:

Sample 9 may be compared against Samples B, D, E and G.

In every instance, Sample 9 had superior results for fat release, shrinkage and colour change (with the exception that Sample B had lightly better shrinkage, but this is believed to be due to the higher levels of SPI and MC in Sample B).

Sample 10:

Sample 10 may be compared against Samples A, C, F, H, and I. In every instance, Sample 10 had superior results for fat release, shrinkage and colour change.

Sample 11 :

Sample 11 may be compared against Samples B, D, E, and G. In every instance, Sample

11 has superior results for fat release, shrinkage and colour change.

Sample 12:

Sample 12 may be compared against Samples B, D, E, and G. In every instance, Sample

12 had superior results for fat release, shrinkage and colour change. Sample 13:

Sample 13 may be compared against Samples B, D, E, and G. In every instance, Sample

13 had superior results for fat release, shrinkage and colour change.

Sample 14:

Sample 14 may be compared against Samples A, F, H, and I. In every instance, Sample

14 had superior results for fat release, shrinkage and colour change.

Sample 15:

Sample 15 may be compared against Samples A, C, F, H, and I. Even though all the comparative samples contained 33% more fat than Sample 15 (40% vs 30%), in every instance Sample 15 performed very well for fat release, shrinkage and colour change - outperforming most of the comparators and easily being superior to the benchmark score of 1.

Sample 16:

Sample 16 may be compared against Samples B, D, E, and G. In every instance, Sample 16 had superior results for fat release, shrinkage and colour change.

Sample J:

As noted above, Sample J used Chickpea flour instead of Aquafafa and it can be seen that this resulted in very poor frying behaviour with a fat release score of only 1 .5, thus demonstrating that it is the presence of Aquafaba (and not just any source of chickpea carbohydrate/protein) that is required for the operation of this invention.

Samples 17 to 21 :

Samples 17, 18, 19, 20 and 21 may all be compared against Sample I which had the same base formula, but without aquafaba.

Sample 17 shows that chickpea aquafaba derived in situ worked just as well as commercially sourced dried aquafaba and delivered a fat release score of 2.2. Sample 18 shows that lentil aquafaba derived in situ worked just as well as commercially sourced dried aquafaba and delivered a fat release score of 3.

Sample 19 shows that liquid aquafaba worked just as well as commercially sourced dried aquafaba and delivered a fat release score of 4.

Sample 20 shows that the presence of aquafaba delivered a higher fat release score of 3.5 compared to a score of 2 from the non-aquafaba Sample I

Sample 21 demonstrates that in certain aquafaba containing formulations the absence of SPI delivers an even higher fat release score of 4.5.

Samples 22 and 23:

Sample 22 demonstrates that even formulations with lower levels of fat (25%), SPI (2.5%), and aquafaba (1 .5%) are capable of delivering a high fat release score of 3.

Sample 23 shows that formulations with lower fat (25%) and without lecithin can still deliver a high fat release score of 2.

SUMMARY

The foregoing data therefore demonstrates that every aquafaba containing sample was capable of outperforming the comparative non-aquafaba containing samples on frying behaviour on at least 2 and in almost all cases all 3 of the tested frying behaviours of fat release, shrinkage and colour change.

Of course - in addition to the individual comparisons of aquafaba containing vs. nonaquafaba containing samples - it is self-evident that in every instance of the forgoing data analysis, every single one of the aquafaba containing samples were shown to have performed better than the existing fat tissue mimetic for all the properties of fat release, shrinking, and colour change.

Notably, all samples containing the claimed weight ratio of lecithimaquafaba (Samples 1 , 4, 6, 8, 16 and 22) also delivered excellent frying behaviour, in particular colour change and fat release. Notably, all the samples containing emulsifiers derived from plant protein (i.e. containing SPI) can be seen to have a weight ratio of SPI : fat falling within the scope of the present invention and all can be seen to have excellent properties of fat release, shrinking, and colour change.