TECHNICAL FIELD

[0001] The present disclosure relates generally to methods and apparatus for making modular construction blocks from biomass.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0002] This application claims priority from US application No. 63/318,646 filed March 10, 2022 entitled “KELP BASED MODULAR CONSTRUCTION BLOCKS AND METHODS OF MAKING SAME”. This application claims the benefit under 35 USC §119 of US application No. 63/318,646 filed March 10, 2022 entitled “KELP BASED MODULAR CONSTRUCTION BLOCKS AND METHODS OF MAKING SAME”, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

[0003] Increased greenhouse gas emissions have amplified the earth’s natural greenhouse effect, contributing to rising temperatures. One of the noticeable impacts of this climate change is the earth’s rising sea level. Such rising sea level is leading to coastal habitat loss, among other consequences.

[0004] Construction of structures commonly use renewable natural resources. These resources are generally in limited supply and can lead to natural habitat loss. For example, using wood for buildings results in deforestation. Man-made materials such as concrete are also commonly used in structures. However, the production of concrete has a significant carbon footprint due to fossil fuel combustion for heating the kiln, and the carbon released from limestone in chemical reactions.

[0005] There is an interest in the use of more sustainable construction materials and methods of production to reduce the carbon footprint of construction. There is also an interest in the development of marine infrastructure technologies to provide alternate habitats in view of the loss of coastal territory, support for offshore power generation, and large marine aquaculture operations. [0006] Generally, marine infrastructure is made of concrete or steel. When buoyancy is required, spaces are incorporated into the interior of structures which are filled with air or light materials such as styrofoam. This poses environmental and emissions problems and is costly. Wood is sometimes used, for example for docks, however, even treated wood loses buoyancy relatively quickly. In each of these cases, the materials quickly degrade from the constant salt corrosion and biological forces of the ocean.

[0007] Hempcrete is a new form of construction material, with various desirable material qualities including buoyancy and low net carbon footprint. However it lacks structural strength and is prone to water absorption. Other cementitious materials have been created using biomass such as wheat straw, palm fibers, rice husks but those materials share similar problems with water absorption and strength. Treatments of these materials (chemical, physical) can improve those qualities but not significantly. Moreover, they pose challenges at the industrial scale. Many of the existing strategies look to biomass as a supplement to concrete and not as a replacement, and so their net carbon impact is significantly reduced by the carbon dioxide impacts of heating limestone to create cement.

[0008] There is a need for methods and apparatus to address the aforementioned problems with the art.

SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE

[0009] In general, the present specification describes methods and apparatus for an interlocking brick system created from biomass (such as kelp) and coated with a strong, impermeable shell.

[0010] One aspect of the invention is directed to a floating brick system that locks in three dimensions, like interlocking blocks. The brick system allows for square and rectangular shapes. Some embodiments also allow for triangular, hexagonal, trapezoid and/or rhombus shapes. Some embodiments include a five-part locking system that enables structures exhibiting qualities that are optimal for ocean conditions such as flexibility and the ability to absorb force from winds and waves.

[0011] Another aspect of the invention is directed to the manufacturing process for creating such bricks, including treatment of biomass, addition of admixtures, shaping and curing the bricks, coating the bricks with a strong, impermeable shell. The shell may be further treated to increase its longevity.

[0012] One aspect is directed to a method for manufacturing a block of biomass. The biomass is macroalgal biomass in particular embodiments. The method includes subjecting the biomass to steam explosion to provide a plurality of biomass fibers; cutting, filtering and/or grinding or otherwise processing the plurality of biomass fibers to produce a mixture of biomass fibers (to which one or more admixtures may be added); compression molding the mixture of biomass fibers to form the block; and forming a protective shell around the block. The protective shell may comprise a polymer, resin or epoxy coat, a siloxane or synthetic enamel, or a ceramic coat. The block may be treated with a bioresistance enhancing material. In particular embodiments, the mixture of biomass fibers is aerated. A radio-frequency identification (“RFID”) tag and other electronic components may be incorporated into the mixture of biomass fibers during manufacturing of the block. A plurality of bumps on the outer surface of the shell may be included in the mold or etched on the protective shell.

[0013] In one embodiment, compression molding of the mixture of biomass fibers comprises casting the mixture of biomass fibers into one or more molds containing honeycomb-shaped cavities.

[0014] In particular embodiments, compression molding the mixture of biomass fibers comprises casting the mixture of biomass fibers into one or more molds shaped to form a construction block defined by an upper surface and a lower surface and at least three faces extending generally perpendicularly to and between the upper surface and the lower surface, the construction block comprising a plurality of connecting elements disposed along one or more of the faces, wherein the construction block is connectable to a second construction block to form a layer of blocks, by coupling one of the plurality of connecting elements disposed on one of the faces of the construction block with a complementary connecting element disposed on one of the faces of the second construction block. The complementary connecting elements are adapted to form a hook lock, a snick lock, a bump lock, a jigsaw lock, a ring lock or a squeeze lock. The construction block is defined by a plurality of bumps disposed on the upper surface and a plurality of corresponding depressions disposed on the lower surface.

[0015] The protective shell is a ceramic coat in certain embodiments. To form the shell, the block is coated in a ceramic mixture incorporating polymer additives and/or ceramic admixtures. Firing of the ceramic-coated block forms a hardened water-impermeable casing. A microwave oven may be used for firing the block.

[0016] Blocks manufactured according to the methods described herein may be used as the building blocks of various structures, including for example, floating structures for offshore mariculture.

[0017] A further aspect is directed to a biomass-based construction block, wherein the biomass-based construction block is defined by an upper surface and a lower surface and at least three faces extending generally perpendicularly to and between the upper surface and the lower surface. The biomass-based construction block has a plurality of connecting elements disposed along one or more of the faces, and a plurality of bumps disposed on the upper surface and a plurality of corresponding depressions disposed on the lower surface. The biomass-based construction block is connectable to a second biomass-based construction block to form a layer of blocks, by coupling one of the plurality of connecting elements disposed on one of the faces of the biomass-based construction block with a complementary connecting element disposed on one of the faces of the second biomass-based construction block. The layer of blocks is connectable to an adjacent layer of blocks, by arranging the layer of blocks so that the plurality of bumps disposed on the upper surface of the layer of blocks is received within the plurality of corresponding depressions disposed on the lower surface of the adjacent layer of blocks.

[0018] Additional aspects of the present invention will be apparent in view of the description which follows.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0019] Features and advantages of the embodiments of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description, taken with reference to the appended drawings in which:

[0020] FIG. 1 illustrates a method of manufacturing a biomass block according to one embodiment; [0021] FIGS. 2A and 2B are top and bottom views, respectively, of a biomass square block according to one embodiment;

[0022] FIG. 20 are top and bottom views of a “right face” biomass triangular block according to one embodiment;

[0023] FIG. 2D are top and bottom views of a “left face” biomass triangular block according to one embodiment;

[0024] FIGS. 2E, 2F and 2G are top views of "right face" biomass trapezoidal, rhomboid and hexagonal blocks according to one embodiment;

[0025] FIGS. 2H, 2I, 2J, 2K, 2L, 2M are top views of "right face" biomass square, triangular, trapezoidal, rectangular, rhomboid and hexagonal "mini-blocks" according to one embodiment;

[0026] FIGS. 2N and 20 are top views of "right face" biomass square and rectangular blocks with one side made flat, according to one embodiment; FIG 2P shows a top view of the "right face" biomass square block with two sides made flat and a corner rounded, according to one embodiment; FIG 2Q shows a top view of a “right face” block with three flat sides;

[0027] FIGS. 2R and 2S are side and top views respectively of a “left” face square biomass block with three flat sides and a slanted top face at 39 degrees; FIG. 2T is a side view of a system of three “left face” square biomass blocks with a slanted face at 65 degrees; FIGS. 2LI, 2V, and 2W are top views of the three blocks respectively;

[0028] FIGS. 2X-1 through to 2X-6, collectively referred to as FIG. 2X, are an alternative embodiment of the blocks of FIGS. 2A through to 2W that uses a jig-saw style locking mechanism (although not every view/version of the blocks of FIGS. 2A through to 2W are shown in FIG. 2X, blocks not shown can be extrapolated by changing the locking mechanism);

[0029] FIGS. 3A and 3B (collectively, “FIG. 3”) are side views of a bump on a lower block received within a corresponding depression on an upper block (showing a “bump lock”);

[0030] FIG. 4A is a top view of a portion of a block with lock features according to one embodiment for connecting adjoining blocks;

[0031] FIG. 4B shows cross-sectional views taken along line A-A in FIG. 4A (collectively “FIG. 4”) showing a “snick lock”; [0032] FIGS. 40, 4D and 4E are top views showing various stages of two adjoining blocks being locked together using the features of the “jigsaw lock” featured in FIG. 2X;

[0033] FIGS. 5A and 5B are top views showing various stages of two adjoining blocks being locked together using the features of FIG. 4A AND FIG.4B, wherein this provides a “hook lock”;

[0034] FIG.5C shows a top view of one-half of the block shown in FIG.2X-2, where the interior honeycomb cavities are shown;

[0035] FIG. 6A is a top view of a portion of a block with two rounded cutouts, and an inset ring shape surrounding a disc-shaped flat cavity, wherein the outer ring shape allows the insertion of a metal ring or a spring, and provide a “ring lock”;

[0036] FIG. 6B is a cross section view of FIG. 6A (collectively, “FIG. 6”) showing two layers of blocks connected vertically via rods or cables stretched down the holes between them and held under tension by metal discs in the disc cavity, wherein this provides a “squeeze lock”;

[0037] FIGS. 6C, 6D,6E and 6F show a system of discs, threads, nuts and cables that can be assembled at any point in a cable to connect many layers of bricks using the squeeze lock, under high pressure, into a rigid structure;

[0038] FIG. 7A is a cross section view taken along line A-A of FIG. 2A; and FIG. 7B is an enlarged view of a portion of the view seen in FIG. 7A (collectively, “FIG. 7”);

[0039] FIGS. 8A, 8B (collectively, “FIG. 8”) are side and top views, respectively, of a beam/ceiling constructed of biomass blocks according to the embodiments described herein;

[0040] FIG. 9A shows the top and side view of a circular metal plate with a hole in the middle and bolt holes around the edge;

[0041] FIG. 9B shows such a circular metal plate with some of the holes filled with insulating bolts;

[0042] FIG. 9C shows such an insulated bolt attached to such a plate fitting into one of the holes in the circular groove at the top or bottom of the block;

[0043] FIG. 9D shows a transponding unit placed in the interior of the block, which would contain various instruments to monitor and broadcast information about the brick; [0044] FIG. 9E shows the interior of the block used as an information processing device;

[0045] FIG. 9F shows the small cavity used as a set of electrodes which can be used as a data port to transmit information into and out of the block;

[0046] FIGS. 10A, 10B, 10C, 10D, 10E, 10F, 10G, 10H and 101 (collectively, “FIG. 10”) show various patterns or shapes that can be constructed using biomass blocks according to the embodiments described herein;

[0047] FIG. 11 A, 11 B and 11C (collectively, “FIG. 11”) are views of an offshore mariculture farm that may be constructed using biomass blocks according to the embodiments described herein; and

[0048] FIG. 12A is a cross-section view of a wall and FIG. 12B (collectively, “FIG. 12”) is a cross-section view of a power generation station constructed using biomass blocks according to the embodiments described herein.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0049] The description, which follows, and the embodiments described therein, are provided by way of illustration of examples of particular embodiments of the principles of the present invention. These examples are provided for the purposes of explanation, and not limitation, of those principles and of the invention.

[0050] Described herein are modular construction blocks made, at least in part, from renewable biomass. In certain embodiments the blocks are buoyant and waterproof so that they can be used to build floating structures. Preferably, the construction blocks have high compression and fracture strength. In embodiments used to construct floating structures, desirable properties of the blocks include impermeability and resistance to certain marine environment conditions, such as, for example, biofouling. Each block will be made of environmentally benign materials and once a block has reached the end of its useful life it can be disposed of by allowing it to sink to the ocean floor in a non-coastal area. In some embodiments, each block is constructed to last between 25 to 100 years in water before it needs to be replaced and disposed of. As used herein, “blocks” refers to structural units of any shape or size that may be assembled with other blocks to construct a structure. As used herein, “structure” refers to any man-made structure, whether land or marine-based. Marine-based structures may include floating structures such as piers, docks, bridges, breakwaters, power plants (e.g. wind or solar), oil/gas storage, aquaculture or mariculture structures, barges and large vessels, floating airports, dwellings, and complexes for habitation, or entertainment purposes.

[0051] Particular embodiments use macroalgal biomass from seaweed (for example, kelp) to construct the blocks. Kelp can be chopped, treated, mixed with additives, soaked and cured in a mold to form a biomass product.

[0052] Kelp also has several commercially valuable components for manufacturing fertilizer, feedstock (e.g. to feed chickens, beef, fish, shrimp), food additives (e.g. protein, hydrocolloids, nutrients, iodine), bioplastics (e.g. ethylene-vinyl acetate), and biofuel, among other applications. The processes which extract such useful components from kelp typically result in a fibrous by-product. This kelp biomass by-product may be saved for use as a primary component of the blocks in particular embodiments of the invention. Biomass from any type of kelp or seaweed species may be collected to produce the blocks. For example, giant kelp may be used. Giant kelp is a fast-growing kelp species, and is one of the fastest growing organisms on the planet. Other biomass that may be used to construct the blocks include wood fiber, hemp fiber, corn husk fiber, rice husk, straw, and other agricultural and forestry by-products.

[0053] FIG. 1 shows a method 100 for manufacturing a biomass block. In the illustrated embodiment, method 100 is for manufacturing a block from kelp biomass 101 , however, method 100 can be adapted for use to manufacture blocks out of other types of biomass. To prepare the kelp biomass 101 for manufacturing into blocks, method 100 begins with washing, or alternately, a steam explosion process wherein the kelp is placed in a chamber with steam at high pressure (at step 102). The pressure is quickly released, exploding the cells in the fibers. This changes the properties of the fibers, making it easier to press them together into blocks.

[0054] Method 100 proceeds to step 104, wherein the kelp fibers are treated through filtering, cutting and/or grinding to produce an optimal or desirable size or length of fiber and variety of lengths. In some cases, fibers of different lengths are combined to increase the strength of the resulting block.

[0055] Admixtures 105 may then be added to the kelp biomass, at step 106, to strengthen the resulting blocks. For example, binder admixtures may be added, such as resin, sodium bicarbonate, lime, organic polymers, or calcium sulfate dehydrate. Nanofiber admixtures may be added, such as cellulose nanofibers, which is a byproduct of kelp extraction processes. In particular embodiments, one or more of the following binder admixtures may be added:

• acids such as citric acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, oxalic acid, glucaric acid, tartaric acids, and furandicarboxylic acids;

• soluble polysaccharide (PS) such as chitosan, starch/dextrin, cellulose, gelatin, hydroxyethylcellulose, soy protein, protein jelly, dextran and sodium alginate, which can be sourced from kelp;

• resins and polymers such as PLA (polylactic acid), lignin, and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA);

• simple sugars like glucose, sucrose, and maltodextrin;

• insoluble biomass, wood fibers, fibrillated cellulose, jute fiber, flax fiber, hemp fiber, coir fiber or natural wool fiber;

• aldehydes such as glutaraldehyde or formaldehyde;

• inert fillers such as clays, gypsum, lime, silica (sand), calcium carbonate (sea shell), calcium sulfate dehydrate, and glass fiber;

• salts such as calcium chloride or natural soaps such as anionic sodium stearate;

• synthetic crosslinkers such as isocyanates or epoxidized compounds; and

• nanofibers such as cellulose nanofibers and crystalline nanocellulose.

[0056] In certain embodiments, the combination of kelp and admixtures can proceed in different stages. For example some kelp biomass may be ground to a fine powder and mixed with admixtures to form an adhesive slurry, which is then mixed with coarsely ground kelp biomass and air-dried. Alternatively, coarsely ground kelp may be sprinkled or soaked with a water solution containing one or more admixtures, which are mixed to wet the kelp thoroughly, and then let dry.

[0057] Suitable admixtures can also be added for protection against water penetration.

Wax, oil, light resins, aluminum ions, and the like, may be incorporated for increasing the block’s resistance to water penetration. Other admixtures that may be used include self-healing enzymes which form crystalline sealants when exposed to water (e.g. silicate gel, techcrete), or carbon dioxide (e.g. carbonic anhydrase).

[0058] For buoyant blocks, the density of the blocks must be less than the density of water. In certain embodiments, the density of the blocks is about 500 kg/m3, which is about half the density of water. At step 108 of method 100, the biomass mixture is optionally aerated to decrease the density of the block with a small trade-off in strength. Some methods for aeration of the biomass mixture include the use of:

• lime, sodium hydrocarbonate and aluminum reactions to create a mixture evenly-filled with closed bubble cells;

• synthetic-enzyme based foaming agents to incorporate small hollow spaces into the biomass mixture (this would require a later drying stage because water is needed for foaming);

• solid foam beads (e.g. polyamide foam);

• lightweight expanded clay aggregate (“LECA”);

• carbon dioxide added under pressure injection;

• inserted objects, such as beads/inserts (these can be inserted as part of a dry process, and may be either hollow, reinforced or contain lightweight pressure resistant filler such as aerogel); or

• large internal cavities created using internal walls, such as honeycomb structures.

[0059] At step 110, the biomass mixture as described above is cast into a compression mold of the block, using a boltclamp mold or a press such as a drill press. In some embodiments, the block is then heated under pressure to between 165°C and 210°C. In other embodiments, the block is heated under pressure to between 120°C and 150°C. The pressure treatment together with heat creates a high-strength block that is resistant to water penetration. In some embodiments, the block has a compressive strength that is about 30-50 MPa (similar to wood, higher than concrete). The biomass mixture may be dry cast or wet cast, depending on whether an aeration method is used that requires the use of water. Wet casting requires a subsequent drying stage.

[0060] In an alternative embodiment, the biomass mixture is cast into two separate molds containing internal cavities which are then fixed together. In an embodiment, these cavities would take the shape of honey-comb patterns, and fit together in a locking mechanism in which each hexagonal column has a different height as in FIG. 5C. The empty volume enclosed by these cavities can be adjusted by increasing or decreasing the width of the honeycomb walls, so that kelp composites of varying density can be accommodated to achieve a final density approaching 500 kg/m ³ . [0061] In some embodiments, a radio-frequency identification (“RFID”) tag is inserted in each block (step 111). As this is done prior to compression molding, the tag needs to be sufficiently robust to survive the pressure and heat of the compression mold stage. Certain RFID technology allows unique (unreplicable) RFID fingerprinting, so each block would have a unique identifier for registration. Other elements that may be inserted in the block include sensors to monitor the interior environment of the block, geolocation devices, motion-rechargeable batteries and transponders for blocks which are adrift.

[0062] A biomass block that is placed in water to build a floating structure will eventually become saturated with water and lose its buoyancy, absent any waterproofing of the block. To maintain the structure, the saturated block must be replaced or new blocks added to build up the structure. Structures may be designed to allow saturated blocks to sink to the ocean floor.

[0063] To extend the useful life of the block, certain embodiments of the invention include the formation of a protective outer shell for the block, illustrated at step 112 of method 100. In particular embodiments, the protective outer shell is a water-impermeable shell that prevents water from entering and saturating the biomass. The shell also protects against corrosion and biodegradation in harsh marine environments. This is particularly important where aeration is used in forming the block. The protective outer shell enables the blocks to be used to build floating structures for long term use, akin to conventional land structures.

[0064] In some embodiments, the outer shell is a high-strength, impermeable, non-toxic resin or polymer coat, such as acrylic, epoxy (e.g. marine grade epoxy resin), urethane, and the like. In particular embodiments, some examples of polymers that can be used in the coat include:

• epoxy;

• acrylic and acrylic-urethane;

• polyethylene glycol (PEG);

• urethane or polyurethane;

• polyurea (Pll) and polyaspartic coatings;

• polypropylene (PP);

• polyvinyl alcohol (PVA);

• hybrids such as polyurethane-acrylic hybrids, silicone-polyurethane hybrids and epoxypolyurethane hybrids;

• cellulose-based polymers; fluoroethylene vinyl ether (FEVE); two-dimensional polymers such as 2DPA-1; and graphene nanoplatelet and polymer composites.

[0065] In some embodiments, the outer shell is formed by dipping the molded block into the coating material and curing with heat, microwave radiation, ultraviolet radiation, and/or pressure. In other embodiments, the coating can be applied with an electrostatic spray gun, which in some instances can cure without the necessity of heat. Multiple layers of different coatings can be applied to achieve ideal characteristics of strength, impermeability and anti-biofouling.

[0066] The use of pressure can further increase resin penetration, hardness and seal. Methacrylic acid (MA) can be added to discourage micro-organisms.

[0067] In other embodiments, the outer shell is a ceramic or porcelain shell, which can be surface treated with a glaze, enamel or other strengthening coats. This would be formed by coating the block (by dipping into the material, spraying on the material, or pressure injection molding) and then firing it in an oven, such as a microwave oven (as described below). While there may be trade-offs in the cost of the materials, strength, fracture resistance, and heat required to fuse the ceramic, in general ceramics offer good impermeability, hardness, and fracture toughness. Suitable ceramic materials may include: sialons (e.g. Syalon 101), nacre ceramic, calcite crystals, stishovite. In particular embodiments, the resulting outer shell may be: porcelain enamel (obtained by heating to a temperature of 800°C), which is impermeable, abrasion, corrosion resistant; porcelain glaze (obtained by heating to a temperature of 1200°), which can increase strength of the blocks by two to three times; or silicon carbide (obtained by heating to a temperature of 1600°C), which is also known as carborundum, and has a similar hardness as diamond.

[0068] For the formation of a ceramic shell, it is not necessary to heat the entire block, which would be energy intensive and pyrolize the fibers. Instead, a microwave oven can be used to heat up the outer skin of the block, penetrating only a short distance into the surface of the block. This is less energy intensive, faster and also reduces or avoids off-gassing of carbon dioxide under high heat. Studies have shown that variable frequencies and external magnetic fields further reduce the heat and time required.

[0069] In some embodiments, an outer ceramic seal can be created without applying a specialized layer, if there are admixtures in the biomass mixture that fuse at the surface under the heat provided by a microwave oven. However, depending on the cost of materials and application, it may be more cost effective to apply a specialized ceramic layer which binds to the base block.

[0070] Although microwave firing will, in general, only penetrate a few millimeters into the block, the heat flux may still conduct to the inside of the block, potentially pyrolyzing and weakening the biomass to a certain depth. To address this concern, nanostructures can be etched or encouraged to form on the ceramic surface to prevent squelch cracking and the block can be cooled in water or other coolant after firing. Alternatively, a block can be placed in a bath of a “buffer” reactant prior to firing. For example, saturating the biomass block to a depth of a few millimeters with chlorine (for mineralization) followed by tetraethyl orthosilicate (“TEOS”) reduces heat flux to the interior as TEOS absorbs heat to power reactions with the mineralized carbon in the kelp. TEOS and carbon react to produce silicon carbide, which is itself a ceramic. In this way, the buffer absorbs heat, and provides a subsurface layer of ceramic which can bind to the outer shell. Microwave penetration into the biomass can also be reduced by coating the block in materials reflective to EMF to create a Faraday cage, using materials such as wire mesh, aluminum foils, or an EMR paint. Any of the above approaches can be combined and made further effective by a coat of insulating material applied to the biomass before the ceramic shell is applied.

[0071] In the illustrated embodiment of FIG. 1, the ceramic shell undergoes a treatment at step 114 to increase their longevity. For example, the ceramic can be treated before firing to:

• substantially increase ceramic fracture strength using polymer additives (e.g. nacre ceramics);

• provide super-hydrophilic properties and to prevent scaling and/or biofilms using an admixture to create internal structures that do not expose hydroxyl groups; and

• kill bacteria that attach (e.g. coating with zinc oxide, or an antibacterial ceramic glaze).

[0072] Also, the block can be treated after firing to:

• provide bioresistance through a liquid entrenched smooth surface (LESS) (e.g. polydimethylsiloxane and silicone oil);

• provide hydrophilic properties and bioresistance through the use of nano-structures, for example by way of vapor deposition or lasers that leave nano patterns on the surface. [0073] In other embodiments, non-ceramic, hard, impermeable materials that may be used for the shell include, for example:

• siloxane;

• two-dimensional polymers such as 2DPA-1;

• graphene nanoplatelet and polymer composites;

• artificial or synthetic enamel, for example, composed of wires of hydroxyapatite crystal coated in zirconium oxide; and

• high concentrations of cellulose nanocrystals mixed with synthetic polymer.

[0074] Finally, at step 116 of method 100, final surfacing of the block is done. For example, the tops of the blocks can be laser etched with bumps so that they provide some grip, otherwise the blocks may be slippery for walking on. In addition, the protruding tongues of the hook locks can be made to have a bumpy surface, to facilitate carrying of the blocks. These bumps are best seen in FIG. 2, described in further detail below.

[0075] In particular embodiments, the blocks are constructed to serve as energy storage units such as batteries or capacitors, as illustrated in FIG. 9E. A battery can be created by replacing the biomass core of the block with an organic electrolyte. A capacitor can also be created by coating the biomass (before the shell is applied) in a conductive polymer referred to as poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (“PEDOT”) which is formed of nanofibers that work their way inside the porous structure of the blocks. Incorporating tailored admixtures at an early stage of the biomass block production would allow them to carry an even greater charge density.

[0076] If a section of such blocks are locked tightly together with contact points such as those set out in FIG. 9A, 9B, that section could function as a giant energy storage system. Given the energy production capability of marine infrastructure, connected assemblies such blocks may be used to construct large power storage stations for electric ocean shipping.

[0077] The interior of specific blocks can also be customized to contain an organic computing machine, in which case the electrical contact points would be converted to data ports as seen in FIG 9F.

[0078] FIGS. 2 to 9 illustrate features of a biomass-based block in accordance with embodiments of the invention (formed, for example, in accordance with the methods described herein). As explained in further detail below, the blocks in accordance with these embodiments have particular properties such that, once attached as part of a floating structure, are vertically stabilizing (lock into lying flat, in layers), have non-overlapping seams (for example, with alternating gaps to minimize structural weakness, have flexible joining, and are resistant to stress and tearing). In particular embodiments, the blocks are compact and are readily transportable by hand. The blocks, when assembled together, form sticky, sliding layers of a structure. In some embodiments, each layer has different patterns and configurations of blocks. The blocks in a structure may be square and/or triangular in shape as well as a variety of other shapes based on squares and triangles.

[0079] The blocks have connecting features acting as locks between adjacent blocks. In one embodiment, there are various types of locks, including a “hook lock”, a “snick lock”, a “bump lock”, a “jigsaw lock”, a “ring lock”, and a “squeeze lock”. The various locks serve a multitude of structural purposes. The “hook lock” and “snick lock” act together to ensure that, once connected, two bricks will not separate without a deliberate human action. In an alternative embodiment to the “hook lock” and “snick lock”, the “jigsaw lock” also acts to ensure two bricks will not separate without deliberate human action. The “bump lock” uses the force of gravity to make layers stick to each other, to keep a stable configuration for the structure. The “ring lock” creates horizontal rigidity in a layer. The “squeeze lock” will ensure layers are tightly coupled vertically, which together with the ’’bump lock” will create a rigid overall structure. If the “squeeze lock” is applied loosely, the layers will be able to unlock (from the bump lock) and slide in response to applied forces. Different layers of the structure can thus separate if the edge of the structure receives a high level of force so that the layers can ripple or buckle without being stuck to each other. When the force subsides, gravity guided by the squeeze locks will incline the layers to fall back to the former configuration.

[0080] Assembled structures of blocks in accordance with the embodiments described herein may absorb and release energy smoothly and efficiently. In the case of floating structures, to survive up-down waves and to maintain structural integrity if subjected to one side being lifted quickly (e.g. by a tsunami), the block assembly needs to have a degree of flexibility in the up-down direction. For example, in some embodiments, a block assembly has internal spaces which allow the structure to be squeezed, or to form a wave shape when viewed from the side. The structure needs to also be able to withstand horizontal compression forces to some extent, for example from a large wind or wave, by compressing to absorb the energy rather than breaking or splitting. A larger structure will have larger inertia, so local absorption of energy impact is important. [0081] In addition, the structure should withstand some shearing force. If the top is subject to greater forces than the bottom, then it can flex in the wind (similarly to a skyscraper). If the left side is subject to greater forces than the right, then it can deform or flex to absorb the differential force without transmitting it. The structure should also be able to twist and torque, if impacted at different angles by waves following different or changing patterns.

[0082] In the illustrated embodiment of FIGS. 2A, 2B, 20 and 2D, there are two types of compatible blocks that make up the building system: (i) square blocks (shown in FIGS. 2A, 2B) and (ii) triangular blocks (shown in FIGS. 20, 2D). From these basic shapes a variety of other shapes can be constructed including hexagons, trapezoids, and rhombuses.

[0083] In the illustrated embodiment of FIGS. FIG.2X-1, 2X-3 and 2X-4, an alternative “jigsaw” style locking system is shown; (i) square blocks (shown in FIG. 2X-1) and (ii) triangular blocks (shown in 2X-3 and 2X-4). Similar to the hook-lock system, these jigsaw-lock blocks can be connected to create a variety of other shapes.

[0084] In the illustrated embodiment shown in FIGS. 2X-2, 2X-5 and 2X-6, “mini-blocks” of square and triangular shape can be created using “jigsaw lock.” in a manner similar to the “hook lock”-based mini-blocks shown in FIGS.2H and 2I.

[0085] Rows of bumps and cavities hold layers fixed relative to each other. FIG. 2A is a top view of square block 200, which has a top surface 201 having an array of bumps arranged in a triangular pattern 202. FIG. 2B is a bottom view of the block 200, which has a bottom surface

203 having an array of depressions or cavities 204. As seen best in FIG. 3A, bump 202 on top surface 201 of lower block 200A is shaped to be received within a corresponding depression

204 on bottom surface 203 of an upper block 200B which is stacked on top of the lower block 200A. If the blocks are part of an uppermost layer of blocks (i.e. there are no more layers of blocks stacked on top), the bumps 203 on the top surface 201 can serve to provide some friction so that it is easier to walk on or handle the blocks.

[0086] Each block may have beveled edges 205 along each block face 208, 209. Portions of the beveled edges 205 may include depressions 206 outlined by grooves 207. These grooves 207 contain shallow circular cavities 210. In the illustrated embodiment of FIG. 2A, 2B, there are depressions 206 located at each of the corners of the block, and at or near the middle of each face 208, 209. Depressions 206 may be shaped approximately as portions of a circle (e.g. quarter-circle, semicircle, and the like). [0087] FIGS. 20, 2D are views of a compatible triangular block 220 having similar features to the square block 200. In particular, triangular block 220 has sides which are the same length L as the sides of the square block 200. Triangular block 220 also has a triangular array of bumps 202 on the top surface 201 and an array of depressions 204 on the bottom surface 203, corresponding to the arrays of bumps 202, depressions 204 of square block 200, and arranged in a similar equilateral triangle pattern. These features enable the square and triangular blocks 200, 220 to be locked into each other and stacked on top of each other.

[0088] In the illustrated embodiment, there are two distinct face types: “right face” 208 (e.g. top and bottom sides of the square block 200 in FIGS. 2A, 2B) and “left face” 209 (e.g. left and right sides of the square block 200 in FIGS. 2A, 2B). Right face 208 is compatible with and can be attached to another right face 208, but not to a left face 209. Left face 209 is compatible with and can be attached to another left face 209, but not to a right face 208. Rectangular blocks 200 can have both left and right faces as seen in FIGS. 2A, 2B. A triangular block 220 can have only one type of face. FIG. 2C shows top and bottom views of a triangular block 220 having entirely right faces 208. FIG. 2D shows top and bottom views of a triangular block 220 having entirely left faces 209. Since left and right faces are incompatible, a square block 200 can only attach to a given type of triangular block 220 along two of the sides of the square block. The left and right face schema ensures that the dot pattern on top of any set of blocks falls onto a consistent triangular pattern and can be a predictable base for the layer above

[0089] In an alternative embodiment using “jigsaw” locks as shown in FIG. 2X, 2Y and 2Z, triangular blocks will come with either entirely right faces, or entirely left faces.

[0090] In some embodiments of a building system having square blocks and triangular blocks, the square block has at least an array of 15 x 17 bumps, and the triangular block has a triangular array of at least 15 x 15 x 15 bumps. The bumps are arranged in an equilateral triangular pattern.

[0091] Some embodiments provide additional shapes aside from squares and triangles. For example, FIGS. 2E, 2F and 2G show a compatible trapezoid, rhombus and hexagon shape with “right face” hook locks. A similar trapezoid, rhombus and hexagon block shape with a “left face” hook lock are not shown here but are also compatible with this blocking system via the square which features both left and right hooks. [0092] In an alternative embodiment using jigsaw locks as shown in 2X, 2Y, and 2Z trapezoid, rhombus and hexagon block shapes can be created using jigsaw locks.

[0093] Blocks may have two hook locks on each face. This allows the blocks to be staggered when stacked, and prevents the structural weakness of continuous gaps, similarly to a traditional bricklaying pattern. However, it is not necessary to require all blocks to have two hook locks per face. In some cases it may be useful to provide smaller blocks to finish edges or create special shapes. For example, the square block 200 of the illustrated embodiment may be divided into four smaller square blocks with half the hook locks each, so that they would still be compatible with the building system. Square block 200 could be divided into two rectangular blocks, each with two hook locks on each of two faces, and one hook lock on each of the other two faces. Similarly, the triangular block 220 of the illustrated embodiment may be divided into four smaller triangles while retaining compatibility with the building system.

[0094] FIGS. 2H, 21, 2J, 2K, 2L and 2M show a set of square, triangle, trapezoid, rectangle, rhombus and hexagonal blocks with one “right face” hook lock per face.

[0095] While hooks are good for securing blocks together within a structure, structures may need a flat surface for the outermost layer of blocks to allow flat walls and slopes. FIGS. 2N and 20 are the top view of a mini-square and rectangle block each with one side made flat, according to one embodiment. FIG. 2P shows the top view of a rectangular block with two flat sides connected around a rounded corner, according to one embodiment. FIG. 2Q shows the top view of a “right face” block with 3 flat sides. In addition to walls at 90° to the horizontal, FIGS. 2R and 2S are side and top views respectively of a “left” face square biomass block with 3 flat sides and a top surface slanted at 39°. FIG. 2T is the side view of a system of three “left face” square biomass blocks with a slanted face at 65° degrees. FIGS. 211, 2V, and 2W are top views of the three blocks respectively.

[0096] In addition to the various shapes shown here, there can be a variety of custom-made blocks for various purposes, such as mooring tie-offs, which can be integrated into this block system.

[0097] All of the explanations above which describe the “hook lock” embodiment shown in FIGS. 2A through 2W also apply to “jigsaw lock” embodiment which is indicated in FIG. 2X and FIG. 4G, 4D and 4E. [0098] FIG. 3A shows the bump 202 on the top surface 201 of the lower block 200A received within a corresponding depression 204 on the bottom surface 203 of the upper block 200B. In the illustrated embodiment, the profile of the bump 202 is in the shape of a half-ellipse.

[0099] When the blocks are assembled to form a layer of blocks, the spacing of the bumps and cavities will create a gap g between adjacent blocks in a layer (see FIG. 6A) This gap may be approximately 1% of the length L of the block in certain embodiments. This gap allows the blocks some movement under compression forces, and also makes them easy to attach.

[0100] As best seen in FIG. 3B (which is an enlarged view of the bump 202 and depression 204 as they move into a locked position), there is a rise or ledge 215 of height “d” in the surface 201 of the block 200A as it approaches the bump 202. FIG. 3A shows the lowest energy position for the upper block 200B. The shallowness of the ledge allows the upper block 200B to slide horizontally up and onto the ledge with only moderate force, absorbing energy. A level surface at the deepest part of the depression 211 allows the upper block to be displaced (with minimal resistance) a certain distance under physical force before it hits the incline. By the time the upper block rides to the top of the bump, it will hit the maximum 1% distance allowed by the gap g between the adjoining faces and force will then be transferred to adjacent bricks. Those bricks will in turn absorb energy moving up their bumps before reaching the 1% limit and transferring energy to their adjacent bricks, etc. In this way, the horizontal compression of a layer of bricks actually absorbs energy by lifting the whole layer of bricks the height of the bumps. When conditions stabilize, gravity will pull the upper layer down the bumps again, releasing the energy.

[0101] In some embodiments, the vertical sides of a block have a mitered edge 224 which slopes to a flat area in the middle (as best seen in FIGS. 7A, 7B). The angle and inset of the mitered edge 224 is such that if two interconnected blocks are laid flat, and the far edge of one block is lifted vertically, the two blocks will have a flat point of contact when the lifted block reaches a small angle from the horizontal. In some embodiments, this may be an angle of 5%. The exact angle and inset will depend on the ratio of block length to block height and the angle of the mitered edge 224. In an embodiment, the height may be 40% of the length L of the block (e.g. a square block may have dimensions of 50 cm x 50 cm x 20 cm).

[0102] The mitered edge 224, combined with the gap g between adjoining blocks, allow the blocks to have a degree of deviation from the horizontal (x-y) plane. This allows for some tolerance of wave motion in a plane of blocks. For example, if an embodiment allows two adjacent blocks to be at a 5° angle, then a series of 9 bricks allows a 45° angle. If each brick is 25 cm in length, this means a single-layer chain of adjoining blocks can have its first block oriented horizontally (e.g. at the bottom of the chain) and its end block oriented vertically (e.g. at the top of the chain) over a distance of about 4.5 meters. This combined with the ability of adjacent layers to slide relative to each other means that multilayer structures can ripple and buckle to absorb horizontal or vertical forces such as waves or winds. Moreover, it enables layers of blocks to be shaped into gently curving surfaces as a feature of architectural design.

[0103] Connecting features, such as hook locks, may be provided along the sides of each block to enable adjoining blocks in the same layer to be locked together. FIGS. 4A and 4B illustrate one example embodiment of such hook locks 257.

[0104] As best seen in FIG. 4B, there is a vertical groove 216 ending in a rounded cavity 217 about halfway down. A ball 218 protrudes from the outer face of each hook, placed about half-way down. A vertical groove 219 opens in the top of the block. FIG. 4B shows a cross-section of the groove 219 taken along line A-A of FIG. 4A. When two blocks are connected using the hook lock, these two features are slotted into each other. As the upper block slides down, the ball follows the squiggle groove until it “snicks” into the ball cavity in the middle as described with reference to FIGS. 5A and 5B below. Once connected, they form a “snick lock” that requires a block to wiggle back and forth along the x-axis and y-axis as it rises along the z-axis in order to separate from another block. This vertical snick lock makes it difficult for random forces to cause multiple interconnected blocks to separate once attached together.

[0105] FIGS. 4C, 4D and 4E show an alternative embodiment using the jigsaw lock. In particular, FIG. 4G shows a top view of two connected blocks from FIG.2X-2, featuring the jigsaw locking system. FIG. 4D shows two cross-sectional views of FIG. 4C, showing in view 400A, the view from line A-A in FIG. 4C, and in view 400B, the view from line B-B in FIG. 4C. FIG. 4E shows an expanded view of FIG. 2X-2, showing the jigsaw locking system.

[0106] FIGS. 5A and 5B are top views showing various positions of two adjacent blocks locked into place using the hook lock of FIGS. 4A and 4B. FIG 5A shows the two blocks in the equilibrium position, with the gap of 1% spacing uniformly separating the two blocks. FIG 5B shows the two blocks pulled apart on the x-axis to the maximum extent, illustrating that the tongue of the hook lock is too large to exit from the space. [0107] FIG. 50 shows the design of mold which can be used to create one half of a block, including internal cavities shown in the form of honeycombs. In this embodiment, the outer walls are 1.8 cm wide and the letters below correspond to different heights of the elements in the mold as follows:

A. 14 cm

B. 13.5 cm

C. 13 cm

D. 12.5 cm

E. 12 cm

F. 11.5 cm

G. 11 cm

H. 10.5 cm

I. 10 cm

J. 9.5 cm

K. 9 cm

L. 8.5 cm

M. 8 cm

N. 7.5 cm

O. 7 cm

P. 6.5 cm

Q. 6 cm

R. 2 cm

S. 11 cm

[0108] The thickness of the internal honeycomb walls can be uniform (homogenous) or heterogenous. The embodiment in FIG.5C shows a heterogenous honeycomb structure in which the thickness of the walls varies throughout. This type of structure can be valuable because under sharp impacts this design allows blocks to fracture locally in a manner which dissipates energy, with minimal damage to their structural integrity.

[0109] In addition to the hook lock and snick lock described above with reference to FIGS. 4 and 5, in some embodiments additional connecting features may be provided at the sides of the block to hold the block in place on the x-y plane and squeeze block layers together on the z-axis. For example, in the illustrated embodiment, at each of 8 points around a square block 200 (see FIG. 2A) there is a depression 206 which is shaped approximately as a portion of a circle (e.g. semicircular shape along the sides of the block, and quarter-circle shape at the corners of the block). This feature can be used to provide a ring lock and squeeze lock, as illustrated by FIGS. 6A, 6B, 7A and 7B. Placing blocks side by side creates several nested vertical tube shafts between adjoining blocks which can be used to lock the block in place on the x-y plane, and squeeze layers together on the z-axis.

[0110] As best seen in FIG. 6A, 6B, a groove or slot 207 is provided around each depression 206. The groove 207 can hold a steel ring 212 (for rigidly locked structures) or steel spring 213 (e.g. 7/8 of a ring) (for allowing some bounce). This is referred to as the “ring lock”.

[0111] For further rigidity, the area defined by the depression 206 and groove 207 can support a washer 226 (flat round plate with a hole in the middle). In an embodiment, washer 226, together with a long rod 227 with threads at either end and two fasteners 228 (e.g. nuts), can be used to vertically fasten two or more adjoining layers together, either rigidly or loosely. In another embodiment, a steel cable can hold multiple layers together under variable or high tension, using washers, clamps, and nuts as in FIG 6C. Such a squeeze lock can be attached at any point in a cable. Multiple layers fastened tightly together by vertical squeezing in this way will be rendered even more rigid by the bump lock. Such rigid layers will be able to span a gap without support or sagging, and therefore act as a horizontal beam or a flat surface such as ceiling or floor. FIG. 7A shows a cross-section taken along line A-A in FIG. 2A. FIG. 7B is an enlarged view of an end portion of the cross-section view of FIG. 7A.

[0112] As described above, two or more alternating layers of blocks can be made horizontally rigid using a squeeze lock. This makes supporting beams and ceilings possible. FIGS. 8A and 8B are side and top views, respectively, of a beam 229 that is 50cm wide, 30 cm thick, and which is constructed as 3 layers. Ceilings can be made in a similar fashion, with square blocks arranged in an alternating pattern. The amount of weight that can be borne by a beam or flat surface will depend on how many layers are locked together. Squeeze locks can alternate between different levels, with some long, some short, etc. If the squeeze locks fail under weight, the ceiling or beam may sag but will not entirely collapse since the hook locks will hold the blocks together.

[0113] Rigid walls or ceilings created as described above can be made into impermeable membranes which do not allow water to pass through. The gap between the blocks on the sides and bottom can be plugged and a liquid filling agent such as epoxy resin, pitch, asphalt or hot tar poured from above, filling all empty spaces. When the filling agent thickens or hardens, the walls or ceilings thus treated will be impermeable to water, with the impermeability a function of capillary pressure of the liquid agent adhering to the surfaces between the blocks, the strength of the plugging material and the thickness of the membrane. In this way, watertight cavities or hulls can be created within and throughout marine structures, increasing the volume of water displaced and the overall buoyancy of the structures. Blocks can be used to create reinforcing beams and struts inside such cavities, increasing their structural strength and ability to resist pressure and collapse. Thus, as well as being themselves buoyant, blocks can be combined efficiently to create large, highly buoyant structures such as ships or floating islands.

[0114] Rigid structures of blocks can be made into large energy storage facilities by treating the biomass of the blocks to act as capacitors and connecting the blocks into an electrical unit. FIG. 2A shows circular holes 210 in the middle of the groove in each corner and the middle of each block. After the block is fabricated, one or more of these “contact points” can be shallowly drilled out to expose the treated biomass inside and then capped with a pronged metal disc 236 that can connect to the interior and act as an electrode to the outside. FIG. 9 shows how an electrically conducting metal plate and bolts can be used to connect two vertically adjacent layers of blocks.

[0115] FIGS. 9A and 9B show a sandwich plate composed of a metal disc with 12 threaded bolt holes inside the outer edge. Both sides of the disc have such bolt holes and it is covered with an insulating material. Bolts 234 covered with insulating material are screwed into the disc at locations corresponding to the metal electrodes in the blocks 236 to which it will be attached. A spring washer 235 is inserted between the exposed end of each bolt 234 to ensure a good electrical contact between the electrodes 236 and the sandwich plate connecting it to the blocks above and below. Such sandwich plates can be customized to electrically connect any type of block with the blocks above and below it, creating a giant battery. The cables used for the squeeze lock can be electrically connected to the bottommost electrodes and so both the cathode and anode contact points can be easily accessible from the top of the structure.

[0116] FIG. 9D shows a capsule 237 of durable electronics that can be inserted into the biomass before firing. This may include RFID antennae which require no internal power and which can be used to uniquely identify each brick. Such an RFID system can allow large structures to be quickly scanned and the age and quality of their constituent bricks quickly assessed. It will also allow a certification and property registration system which can support the buying and selling of blocks. Other elements that may be inserted in the block include sensors to monitor the interior environment of the block, geolocation devices, motion-rechargeable batteries and transponders for blocks which are adrift.

[0117] More sophisticated information processing capabilities can be realized in rigid structures of blocks. FIG. 9E shows a block made into a computing machine by processing or replacing the interior biomass of the blocks to act as an information processing unit 239, creating “smart blocks.” These smart blocks would communicate with each other and to the outside using conducting fibers 238 which would connect to a data port 240 containing many independent electrodes 251 as seen in FIG. 9F. This data port 240 would take the place occupied by the electrical contact 236. In this way, the circular cavity 210 can host a data interface connected to the interior computing unit. The sandwich plate is then replaced with a multiport data bus which can manage data transfer between blocks.

[0118] There are several approaches to creating such a “smart block.” In a first embodiment, the interior is filled with a stack of layered organic thin-film transistors (TFTs), such as sheets of carbon nanofiber, cellulose nanopaper or transparent wood-film. Organic circuits are printed on the TFTs using inkjet technology using, for example, a carbon nanofiber or graphite, and the sheets are connected vertically into 3D circuits using conductive threads. Other approaches to organic 3D circuits include monolithic printing 3D layers directly which allows vertical transistors and further miniaturization.

[0119] In a second embodiment the interior is filled with neuromorphic “computable matter” composed of nanoparticles such as carbon nanotubes mixed in semiconducting crystals or polymers. Such matter is unstructured, in that it is randomly mixed together, and exhibits the material memory qualities of memristors. Such matter can be programmed by another computer sending electrical signals of varying frequency, waveform and intensity through the electrodes, in an evolutionary feedback-based process. While this would require each block to be programmed separately, it has the advantage that relatively unsophisticated manufacturing technology is needed.

[0120] In a third embodiment, the interior is filled with organic data storage material. Such data storage material could include DNA nucleotides or oligopeptides which can stably store large data for many years. In other embodiments, the interior may be separated into different sections devoted to memory, information processing, power storage and data transfer making each block a self-contained organic computer. Cooling of the blocks will be facilitated by access to high volumes of cold seawater.

[0121] FIG. 10 shows some of the different shapes and patterns that can be constructed using the blocks. This is only a small sample of the possible patterns, and so engineers and architects will have a full suite of design options at their disposal. As mentioned above, various edges and corners may also be created, including some with “mini” blocks with one hook lock per side. Top surfaces can be slanted or inclined to create smooth ramps or arches. The top surfaces can also be flat for floors, or alternatively a thin rubber mat with holes for bumps can be laid over a dot pattern to create a flat surface.

[0122] In addition to the above mentioned shapes and patterns, blocks of unique shapes or sizes may be provided for special purposes (e.g. blocks with holds for tie-offs, sea-doo ramps, etc.). These specialty blocks may be made compatible with the locking system.

[0123] Blocks in accordance with the embodiments described herein may be used for a number of different applications. One example application is for offshore mariculture. Mariculture structures can be used to grow and harvest ocean crops, such as kelp, for example. The blocks used to construct such structures can be made from kelp biomass using the methods described herein. In this way, the blocks can form a part of a circular industrial process in which the kelp fiber necessary to create blocks is grown using structures built using such blocks.

[0124] In particular embodiments, the blocks are constructed to form a hexagonally shaped structure, as seen in FIG. 10A (top view of structure). The hexagonal shape takes advantage of the block structure and provides strength and optimizes interior volume. The blocks can also be used to create dodecahedrons which have an even higher interior volume.

[0125] An exemplary embodiment of a structure 241 that may be used for mariculture is seen in FIG. 11. The structure 241 may be used for a kelp farm. The blocks are constructed to form a hexagonally shaped structure, as seen in FIG. 11A (top view of structure). The hexagonal shape takes advantage of the block structure and provides strength and optimizes interior volume. It may have a wall length of 200 m per side and a wall height of 50 m (of which about 25 m is above water). The walls can be built sufficiently high and deep to act as a windbreak and wave break for the particular marine conditions. The walls can have a triangular profile, as seen in FIG. 12. [0126] Structure 241 may have large tracks 243 that are 10 m wide (i.e. T= 10 m in FIG. 11 B) and extending 2 m above the surface of the water. Structure 241 may also have thinner tracks 242 that are 1.5 m wide (i.e. t = 1.5 m in FIG. 11 B) and extending 0.3 m above the surface of the water. Tracks 242 are oriented perpendicularly to tracks 243 in the illustrated embodiment of FIG. 11. A plurality of lines 244, which may be spaced 1 m apart, extend perpendicularly between adjacent tracks 242. Lines 244 may be used to anchor seawood ropes.

[0127] FIG. 11C shows different machines that may be used to harvest the ocean crop on the mariculture structure 241. Unlike current boat-based harvesting techniques, the embodiment shown in FIG. 11C enables land-based vehicles 245 to roll on two adjoining tracks 242, spanning the water between them with beams and conveyor belts to pull up lines and ropes and remove the ocean crop (e.g. kelp). In addition, wheel-based vehicles 246 (such as trucks) roll on thick tracks 243 to bring the harvested crop to processing facilities in the wall.

[0128] Ocean waves are both a source of instability for marine infrastructure and a source of energy. Large waves such as rogue waves or tsunamis can endanger all but very large structures. To address this for such as a structure 241 , the blocks can be used to build high walls with a triangular profile, as seen in the cross-section of wall 247 of FIG. 12A. Wall 247 can be used for any marine structure. It is not necessary for the walls to be solid. Squeeze locks can be used to create internal rooms 252 using the blocks, which can be used for processing, manufacturing, administration, and residences. Squeeze blocks can also be used to create air cavities 253 under the structure for additional buoyancy. There can also be roofed lagoons for processing and aquaculture.

[0129] Another application of the blocks described herein is to support power generation facilities. FIG. 12A shows a cross-section of one exemplary power generation structure 250. External walls of structure 250 can be sloped, providing inclines which can support power generators such as wind power generators 254 and wave power generators 255.

[0130] Ocean waves can also be addressed by dispersing the force of the waves. FIG. 12B shows blocks used to build an array of columns 255 anchored in the water around an area 256 where calm waters are important. Such columns can be of varying width and periodically spaced which causes them to act on waves like a diffraction grating. Such diffraction gratings have the hydrodynamic effect of creating predictable zones of high amplitude waves and “dead” areas where there are few or no waves. Similar to optical metamaterials, such arrays of pillars bend wave forms to cause certain areas to be “invisible” across a range of frequencies. Wave machines can be placed in the columns which will be in high resonance zones, and vulnerable structures can be placed in dead zones.

[0131] A wave diffraction array would be composed of short, wide vertical columns consisting of blocks. Such columns could be hollow tubes with a hexagonal or dodecagonal cross-section such as FIG. 10G. Such “wave gate” columns could be balanced upright in the vertical position by having the lower portion of the structure composed of heavier-than-water blocks formed of solid ceramic. Pelagic ooze, which can be sourced from the deep ocean seabed, can be fired in the same way as clay to create a ceramic material. In an embodiment, a column could be 100 meters wide and 10 meter tall, protruding 5m above the water. In another embodiment, diameter of the columns could be determined by where they are in the array, with outer columns having a larger diameter. Each column in such a wave gate could act as a power station. Wind turbines can be attached on top of the upper surface to capture wind energy. To capture wave energy, the interior of a column can be constructed of hollow hexagonal columns with open bottoms, such that the height of the water inside the columns can rise and fall with the wave action outside. This rise and fall of water will push and pull air out of one or more holes above the water near the top of each column, driving turbines placed in the holes.

[0132] The blocks may also be used to create power generation structures to support ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) systems. Such structures may have a similar form to the hexagonal structure 257 shown in FIG. 11A and may also be simultaneously used to support other applications, such as mariculture or habitation complexes, for example. OTEC systems harness the temperature differential between deep water and surface water to generate power. Secondary benefits of OTEC systems include: bringing nutrient-rich deep water to the surface for kelp and aquaculture fertilizer, generating fresh water through evaporation, and generating “brine” which can be mined for minerals.

[0133] A structure of biomass blocks according to embodiments herein can be constructed to have a side of between 200 m to 2 km. The walls of the structure can be designed to extract energy from and dampen wind and waves to create a stable micro-climate. The structure is scalable and can be constructed to host any combination of floating or solid structures for a number of different applications, such as moorage for ships, aquaculture with lagoons, recreational (e.g. with beaches, inland areas and trees), and/or land-based agriculture. The walls of the structure can provide significant interior space, including space for residences. A sufficiently large floating structure made of biomass blocks may be used to house tens of thousands of people in terraced areas. Clay-based pelagic sediment can be brought to the surface and used to produce clay for blocks and topsoil for agriculture on these structures

[0134] The examples and corresponding diagrams used herein are for illustrative purposes only. Different configurations and terminology can be used without departing from the principles expressed herein.

[0135] Although the invention has been described with reference to certain specific embodiments, various modifications thereof will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departing from the scope of the invention. The scope of the claims should not be limited by the illustrative embodiments set forth in the examples, but should be given the broadest interpretation consistent with the description as a whole. For example, various features are described herein as being present in “some embodiments”. Such features are not mandatory and may not be present in all embodiments. Embodiments of the invention may include zero, any one or any combination of two or more of such features. This is limited only to the extent that certain ones of such features are incompatible with other ones of such features in the sense that it would be impossible for a person of ordinary skill in the art to construct a practical embodiment that combines such incompatible features. Consequently, the description that “some embodiments” possess feature A and “some embodiments” possess feature B should be interpreted as an express indication that the inventors also contemplate embodiments which combine features A and B (unless the description states otherwise or features A and B are fundamentally incompatible).