FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0001] This disclosure is directed to a non-stainless steel product metallurgically bonded to and carrying a stainless steel outer layer.

BACKGROUND

[0002] Steel is one of the most ubiquitous structural materials in the world.

Unfortunately, steel is prone to oxidation and thereby structural and decorative failure. Many techniques have been developed to attempt to provide a protective coating for steel; these include galvanizing, galvannealing, chromizing, cladding, painting and the like.

[0003] A good method for protecting steel is providing a stainless steel composition on the exterior of the steel product. Chromizing is a common method for the production of chromium-iron alloys, thereby stainless steels, on the surface of steels. Chromizing steel involves thermal deposition-diffusion processes whereby chromium is diffused into the steel and produces a varying concentration of chromium in the steel substrate. Typically, the surface of the substrate has the highest chromium concentration and as the distance into the substrate increases the chromium concentration falls off. Often the chromium concentration follows a typical diffusion function, that is, the chromium concentration decreases exponentially as a function of distance from the substrate. Other chromizing products, such as that described in U.S. Patent 3,312,546, include diffusion coatings that have chromium concentrations above 20% that decrease linearly as a function of distance into the substrate (see Figure 1 ). These high chromium-content coatings appear to include a foil or layer of chromium containing material carried by the bulk substrate.

[0004] The decreasing concentration of chromium as a function of depth into the substrate can affect the corrosion resistance of the material. That is, abrasion of the surface continuously produces new layers with lower chromium concentrations that are well understood to be less corrosion resistant than the initial surface. This undesirable effect, due to the variable concentration of chromium in the chromized surfaces, has been overcome by the advent of explosive cladding.

[0005] Explosive welding or cladding of stainless steel onto a carbon steel produces a stainless steel layer with a consistent composition metallurgically bonded to a carbon steel substrate. This technique overcomes the variable concentrations associated with chromizing but is severely limited by the thicknesses of the flying layer, the use of high explosives, and the metallurgical bond that is formed. Two types of metallurgical bonds have been observed in explosively welding metals: under high explosive loading the cross-section to be composed of a wave-like intermixing of the base and flying layers and under lower explosive loadings the cross-section includes an implantation of grains of the flying layer into the base layer. E.g. see: Explosive welding of stainless steel-carbon steel coaxial pipes, J. Mat. Sci., 2012, 47-2, 685-695; and Microstructure of Austenitic stainless Steel Explosively Bonded to low Carbon-Steel, J. Electron Microsc. (Tokyo), 1973, 22-1, 13-18.

[0006] The prior art fails to teach a material that includes a stainless steel layer with a consistent composition diffusion bonded to a carbon steel substrate. Ideally, such a material would include the corrosion resistance associated with the explosively welded stainless steel and the deep diffusion bonding observed typical of chromizing applications.

SUMMARY

[0007] A first embodiment is a metallurgical^ bonded stainless steel on a steel form that includes a core region that comprises at least 55 wt.% iron and carries a stainless steel coating. The stainless steel coating consists of a stainless steel region and a bonding region. The stainless steel region having a thickness of about 1 μΐη to about 250 μΐη, and having a stainless steel composition that is approximately consistent across the thickness of the stainless steel region. The stainless steel composition includes an admixture of iron and chromium, and includes a chromium concentration of about 10 wt.% to about 30 wt.%. The bonding region is positioned between the stainless steel region and the core region, has a thickness that is greater than 1 μΐη and less than the thickness of the stainless steel region, and has a bonding composition. The bonding composition includes an admixture of iron and chromium, and the bonding composition has a chromium concentration proximal to the stainless steel region that is approximately equal to the chromium concentration of the stainless steel region and has a chromium concentration proximal to the core region that has less than about 5 wt.% chromium.

[0008] A second embodiment is a steel sheet that includes a first stainless steel region having a thickness of about 1 μΐη to about 250 μΐη; a first bonding region positioned between the first stainless steel region and a core region, the first bonding region having a thickness that is greater than 1 μΐη and less than the thickness of the first stainless steel region; the core region having a thickness of about 100 μΐη to about 4 mm, the core region having a core composition that comprises at least 85 wt.% iron; a second bonding region positioned between the core region and a second stainless steel region; and the second stainless steel region having a thickness of about 1 μΐη to about 250 μΐη. The second bonding region has a thickness that is greater than 1 μΐη and less than the thickness of the second stainless steel region. The first and second stainless steel regions have stainless steel compositions that are approximately consistent across the thickness of the respective stainless steel regions. Individually, the stainless steel compositions include an admixture of iron and chromium, and a chromium concentration of about 10 wt.% to about 30 wt.%. The first and second bonding regions have bonding compositions that, individually, comprise an admixture of iron and chromium, having a chromium concentration proximal to the stainless steel region that is approximately equal to the chromium concentration of the stainless steel region and having a chromium concentration proximal to the core region that has less than about 5 wt.% chromium.

BREIF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

[0009] For a more complete understanding of the disclosure, reference should be made to the following detailed description and accompanying drawing figures wherein:

[0010] Figure 1 is a plot of chromium concentration as a function of depth for chromized steel (prior art);

[0011] Figure 2 is a plot of chromium and iron concentrations as a function of depth for a precursor to a 300 series product;

[0012] Figure 3 is a cross section SEM image of the precursor to the 300 series product;

[0013] Figure 4 is a plot of chromium concentrations as a function of depth for a 300 series product, (solid line) the energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) data as measured, (dashed line) the EDX data normalized for the concentration of chromium in the core;

[0014] Figure 5 is a cross section SEM image of the 300 series product;

[0015] Figure 6 is a plot of chromium, nickel, and iron concentrations as a function of depth for a precursor to a 400 series product;

[0016] Figure 7 is a cross section SEM image of the precursor to the 400 series product;

[0017] Figure 8 is a plot of chromium and nickel concentrations as a function of depth for a 400 series product;

[0018] Figure 9 is a cross section SEM image of the 400 series product; and

[0019] Figure 10 is a schematic of one embodiment described herein. [0020] While specific embodiments are illustrated in the figures, with the

understanding that the disclosure is intended to be illustrative, these embodiments are not intended to limit the invention described and illustrated herein.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0021] The term "admixture" as related to a plurality of metals, preferably transition metals, means the metals are intermixed in a given region. An admixture can be further described as a solid solution, an alloy, a homogeneous admixture, a heterogeneous admixture, a metallic phase, or one of the preceding further including an intermetallic or insoluble structure, crystal, or crystallite. Importantly, the term "admixture" as used herein expressly excludes intermixed grains or crystals or inter-soluble materials. That is, the herein described admixtures do not include distinguishable grains of compositions that can form a solid solution, a single metallic phase or the like, for example by heating the admixture to a temperature where the grains of compositions could inter-diffuse. Notably, an admixture can include intermetallic species as these intermetallic species are not soluble in the "solute" or bulk metallic phase. Furthermore, this exclusion of intermixed-intersoluble materials does not limit the homogeneity of the sample; a heterogeneous admixture can include a concentration gradient of at least one of the metals in the admixture but does not include distinguishable grains or crystals of one phase or composition intermixed with grains, with crystals, or in a solute having a second phase of composition in which the first phase of composition is soluble.

[0022] The noun "alloy", as related to an admixture of metals, means a specific composition of metals, preferably transition metals, with a narrow variation in concentration of the metals throughout the admixture. One example of an alloy is 304 stainless steel that has an iron composition that includes about 18-20 wt.% Cr, about 8-10.5 wt.% Ni, and about 2 wt.% Mn. As used herein, an alloy that occupies a specific volume does not include a concentration gradient. Such a specific volume that includes a concentration gradient would include, as an admixture, a plurality or range of alloys.

[0023] Herein, the term "concentration gradient" refers to the regular increase or decrease in the concentration of at least one element in an admixture. Typically, a concentration gradient is observed in an admixture where at least one element in the admixture increases or decreases from a set value to a higher/lower set value. The increase or decrease can be linear, parabolic, Gaussian, or mixtures thereof. Typically, a

concentration gradient is not a step function. A step function variation is better described as a plurality of abutting admixtures. [0024] Layers and/or regions of the herein described materials are referred to as being "metallurgically bonded." That is, the metals, alloys or admixtures that provide the composition of the layers and/or regions are joined through a conformance of lattice structures. No intermediate layers such as adhesives or braze metal are involved. Bonding regions are the areas in which the metallurgical bonds between two or more metals, alloys or admixtures display a conformance of lattice structures. The conformance of lattice structures being the gradual change from the lattice of one metal, alloy or admixture to the lattice of the metallurgically bonded metal, alloy or admixture.

[0025] While terms used herein are typical for the steel industry, the herein disclosed compositions or regions may consist of, or consist essentially of, one or more elements. Notably, steel is considered to be carbon steel, that is a mixture of at least iron and carbon, and generally contains up to 2% total alloying elements; including carbon, chromium, cobalt, niobium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, zirconium or other metals. Thereby, steel or carbon steel does not consist of, or consist essentially of, one or more elements but can be random composition of a variety of elements supported in iron. When compositions or regions are described as consisting of, or consisting essentially of, one or more elements, the concentration of non-disclosed elements in the composition or region are not detectable by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) (e.g., EDX has a typical sensitivity down to levels of about 0.5 to 1 atomic percent). When the composition or region is described as consisting of one or more elements, the concentration of the non-disclosed elements in the composition or region is not detectable or within the measurable error of direct elemental analysis, e.g., by ICP.

[0026] The herein described material includes a variety of metallurgically bonded metals, alloys or admixtures. The composition or concentration of transition metals in the metals, alloys or admixtures is an important feature of the herein described materials.

Equally important is the variation of the compositions or concentrations as a function of depth or distance through the material. Accordingly, herein, the composition or

concentrations of the component metals in the described metals, alloys or admixtures is determined by EDX. Furthermore, herein, when a composition is termed "approximately consistent" over a distance, in a layer, or in a region, the term means that the relative percentage of metals in that distance, layer or region is consistent within the standard error of measurement by EDX. Preferably, the moving average over the "approximately consistent" distance, layer or region has a slope of about zero when plotted as a function of concentration (y-axis) to distance (x-axis). More preferably, the concentration (or relative percentage) of the individual elements in the composition vary by less than about 5 wt.%, 4 wt.%, 3 wt.%, 2 wt.%, or 1 wt.% over the distance. [0027] A first embodiment is a steel form having a stainless steel exterior. The steel form includes a core region which carries a stainless steel coating; that is, the steel form includes the core region, a bonding region, and a stainless steel region, where the bonding region metallurgically bonds the core region to the stainless steel region. Herein, the steel form is defined by layers or regions that include at least 55 wt.% iron, notably, the steel form can be coated by, for example, organic or inorganic coatings but these coatings are not, herein, part of the steel form. The core region of the steel form includes iron, preferably includes at least 55 wt.% iron. More preferably, the iron concentration in the core region is greater than 98 wt.%, 99 wt.%, or 99.5 wt.%. Even more preferably, the core region is a carbon steel having a carbon concentration of less than about 0.5 wt.%. Still more preferably, the core region is a carbon steel having a carbon concentration of less than about 0.25 wt.%. Even still more preferably, the core region is substantially free of chromium and/or substantially free of nickel.

[0028] The stainless steel coating carried by the core region consists of a stainless steel region and a bonding region; the bonding region proximal to the core region and the stainless steel region including the stainless steel exterior. The stainless steel region, preferably, has a thickness of about 1 μΐη to about 250 μΐη, about 5 μΐη to about 250 μΐη, about 10 μΐη to about 250 μΐη, about 25 μΐη to about 250 μΐη, about 50 μΐη to about 250 μΐη, about 10 μΐη to about 200 μΐη, or about 10 μΐη to about 100 μΐη.

[0029] The stainless steel region has a stainless steel composition. Herein, a stainless steel composition means that the stainless steel region includes an admixture of iron and chromium, specifically, the stainless steel composition includes a chromium concentration of about 10 wt.% to about 30 wt.%, for example the chromium concentration can be about 10 wt.%, about 12 wt.%, about 14 wt.%, about 16 wt.%, about 18 wt.%, about 20 wt.%, about 22 wt.%, about 24 wt.%, about 26 wt.%, about 28 wt.%, or about 30 wt.%. Preferably, the stainless steel composition is approximately consistent across the thickness of the stainless steel region.

[0030] The stainless steel composition includes an admixture of iron and chromium, and can further include a transition metal selected from the group consisting of nickel, molybdenum, titanium, niobium, tantalum, vanadium, tungsten, copper, and a mixture thereof. In one example, the stainless steel composition comprises an admixture of iron, chromium, and nickel, and comprises a nickel concentration of about 5 wt.% to about 20 wt.%. In this example, the bonding composition (as described below) consists essentially of iron, chromium and nickel. [0031] In one preferable example, the stainless steel composition has a chromium concentration of about 16 wt.% to about 25 wt.%, and nickel concentration of about 6 wt.% to about 14 wt.%. In another preferable example, the stainless steel composition consists essentially of iron, chromium and nickel.

[0032] In another example, the stainless steel composition can have a chromium concentration of about 10.5 wt.% to about 18 wt.%. In still another preferable example, the stainless steel composition consists essentially of iron and chromium; and the bonding composition consists essentially of iron and chromium.

[0033] As stated previously, the stainless steel coating includes the stainless steel region and the bonding region which is positioned between the stainless steel region and the core region. The bonding region, preferably, has a thickness that is greater than 1 μΐη and less than the thickness of the stainless steel region. More preferably, the bonding region has a thickness of about 5 μΐη to about 200 μΐη, about 5 μΐη to about 100 μΐη, or about 10 μΐη to about 50 μΐη.

[0034] The bonding region has a bonding composition, which includes an admixture of iron and chromium. The bonding composition further includes a chromium concentration proximal to the stainless steel region that is approximately equal to the chromium concentration of the stainless steel region and having a chromium concentration proximal to the core region that has less than about 5 wt.%, about 4 wt.%, about 3 wt.%, about 2 wt.%, about 1 wt.%, or about 0.5 wt.% chromium. That is, the chromium concentration falls through the boding region to a concentration that is less than half of the concentration in the stainless steel region, preferably falls to a concentration that is approximately equal to the

concentration of chromium in the core region. The chromium concentration gradient in the bonding region can include a linear decrease in chromium concentration or a sigmoidal decrease in chromium concentration, preferably the sigmoidal decrease.

[0035] Another embodiment is a steel sheet that includes a plurality of regions, including a first stainless steel region, a first bonding region positioned between the first stainless steel region and a core region, the core region, a second bonding region positioned between the core region and a second stainless steel region, and the second stainless steel region (e.g., see Figure 10). In this embodiment, the first stainless steel region has a thickness of about 1 μΐη to about 250 μΐη; the first bonding region has a thickness that is greater than 1 μΐη and less than the thickness of the first stainless steel region; the core region having a thickness of about 100 μΐη to about 4 mm; the second stainless steel region having a thickness of about 1 μΐη to about 250 μΐη; and the second bonding region having a thickness that is greater than 1 μΐη and less than the thickness of the second stainless steel region.

[0036] Preferably, the core region has a core composition that comprises at least 85 wt.% iron. More preferably, the iron concentration in the core region is greater than 98 wt.%, 99 wt.%, or 99.5 wt.%. Even more preferably, the core region is a carbon steel having a carbon concentration of less than about 0.5 wt.%. Still more preferably, the core region is a carbon steel having a carbon concentration of less than about 0.25 wt.%. Even still more preferably, the core region is substantially free of chromium.

[0037] The first and second stainless steel regions have stainless steel compositions that are approximately consistent across the thickness of the respective stainless steel regions. These stainless steel compositions, individually, include an admixture of iron and chromium with a chromium concentration of about 10 wt.% to about 30 wt.%, for example the chromium concentration can be about 10 wt.%, about 12 wt.%, about 14 wt.%, about 16 wt.%, about 18 wt.%, about 20 wt.%, about 22 wt.%, about 24 wt.%, about 26 wt.%, about 28 wt.%, or about 30 wt.%.

[0038] The first and second bonding regions having bonding compositions that include an admixture of iron and chromium. Individually, the bonding regions have chromium concentrations proximal to the respective stainless steel regions that are approximately equal to the chromium concentration of the stainless steel region and have chromium concentrations proximal to the core region that has less than about 5 wt.%, about 4 wt.%, about 3 wt.%, about 2 wt.%, about 1 wt.%, or about 0.5 wt.% chromium, preferably the chromium concentrations proximal to the core region are approximately equal to the chromium concentration in the core region. That is, the individual bonding regions each have a chromium concentration gradient. The chromium concentration gradient in the bonding region can include a linear decrease in chromium concentration or a sigmoidal decrease in chromium concentration, preferably a sigmoidal decrease.

[0039] In one example, the first and second stainless steel composition, individually, comprises an admixture of iron, chromium, and nickel, with a nickel concentration of about 5 wt.% to about 20 wt.%. In this example the respective first and second bonding compositions also include nickel.

[0040] In another example, the first and second stainless steel composition, individually, comprises an admixture of iron, chromium, and a transition metal selected from the group consisting of nickel, molybdenum, titanium, niobium, tantalum, vanadium, tungsten, copper, and a mixture thereof. In this example, the respective bonding

compositions would also include the selected transition metal(s). [0041] Preferably, the steel sheet that includes the above described regions has a thickness of about 0.1 mm to about 4 mm. The thickness is the lesser of the height, length, or width of the material. For a typical sheet, the length and width are multiple orders of magnitude greater than the height (or thickness). For example the steel sheet can be a steel coil with a width of about 1 meter to about 4 meters and a length of greater than 50 meters.

[0042] The individual stainless steel regions can have the same or different thicknesses; preferably the first and second stainless steel regions have approximately the same thickness (e.g., ±5%). In one example, the first stainless steel region has a thickness of about 10 μΐη to about 100 μΐη. In another example the second stainless steel region has a thickness of about 10 μΐη to about 100 μΐη. The individual bonding regions can have the same or different thicknesses; preferably the first and second bonding regions have approximately the same thickness (e.g., ±5%). In another example, the first bonding region has a thickness of about 5 μΐη to about 100 μΐη. In still another example, the second bonding region has a thickness about 5 μΐη to about 100 μΐη.

[0043] Still another embodiment is a steel form that includes a brushed stainless steel surface carried by a stainless steel region. In this embodiment, the stainless steel region can have a thickness of about 5 μΐη to about 200 μΐη, has an approximately consistent stainless steel composition that includes an admixture of iron and chromium, and can have a chromium concentration of about 10 wt.% to about 30 wt.%. The stainless steel region is carried by a bonding region. Preferably, the bonding region has a thickness of about 5 μΐη to about 200 μΐη but less than the thickness of the stainless steel region. The bonding region metallurgically bonds the stainless steel region to a core region. The core region has a core composition that includes at least 85 wt.% iron. The bonding region further includes a bonding composition which includes an admixture of iron and chromium, and a bonding region concentration gradient that decreases from a chromium concentration proximal to the stainless steel region that is approximately equal to the chromium

concentration of the stainless steel region to a chromium concentration proximal to the core region that is less than about 1 wt.%.

[0044] In addition to the description of the embodiments provided above, the herein described products are preferably free of plastic deformation. Plastic deformation is the elongation or stretching of the grains in a metal or admixture brought about by the distortion of the metal or admixture. For example, cold rolled steel with display plastic deformation in the direction of the rolling. Plastic deformation in steel is easily observable and quantifiable through the investigation of a cross-section of the steel. Herein, the products are preferably substantially free of plastic deformation; that is the products include less than 15%, 10%, or 5% plastic deformation. More preferably, the products described herein are essentially free of plastic deformation; that is, the products include less than 1 % plastic deformation. Even more preferably, the products described herein are free of plastic deformation; that is, plastic deformation in the described products is not observable by investigation of a cross section of the product.

[0045] The herein described products which include a stainless steel layer or region carried by a steel or carbon steel substrate or core can be manufactured by the low temperature deposition of chromium onto a starting substrate that becomes the core region. Available techniques for the deposition of chromium onto the starting substrate include, but are not limited to, physical vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, metal-organic chemical vapor deposition, sputtering, ion implantation, electroplating, electroless plating, pack cementation, the ONERA process, salt bath processes, chromium-cryolite processes, Alphatising process, or the like. In one preferable example, the chromium is deposited in a non-compact layer upon the starting substrate. In another preferable example, the chromium is deposited as a layer that consists essentially of chromium. Figures 2 and 3 show EDX and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) data of the as-deposited chromium layer on the carbon steel substrate. Figure 2 shows the approximate weight percentages of the as-deposited chromium and iron in the carbon steel substrate. Figure 3 shows an SEM image of the cross section of the chromium deposited on the carbon steel substrate. In still another preferable example, the chromium is deposited as an admixture of iron and chromium. In yet another preferable example, the chromium is deposited as an admixture of chromium and an element selected from the group consisting of nickel, molybdenum, titanium, niobium, tantalum, vanadium, tungsten, copper, and a mixture thereof. In still yet another preferable example, a plurality of layers of chromium and an element selected from the group consisting of nickel, molybdenum, titanium, niobium, tantalum, vanadium, tungsten, copper, and a mixture thereof are deposited onto the starting substrate. Figures 6 and 7 show EDX and SEM data of as-deposited nickel and chromium layers on the carbon steel substrate. Figure 6 shows the approximate weight percentages of the as-deposited chromium, as- deposited nickel, and iron in the carbon steel substrate. Figure 7 shows an SEM image of the cross section of the chromium and nickel carried by the carbon steel substrate.

[0046] Following the deposition of the chromium onto the starting substrate, the deposited chromium and any other deposited metals are heated to a temperature in a range of about 800 °C to about 1200 °C, or about 1000 °C. Figures 4 and 5 show EDX and SEM data of a 400 series stainless steel carried by a carbon steel core that was made by heating the deposited chromium, e.g., as shown in Figures 2 and 3. Figure 4 shows the approximate weight percentage of chromium (as measured and normalized) as a function of depth. The stainless steel region is comparable to a stainless steel composition designation selected from the group consisting of 403 SS, 405 SS, 409 SS, 410 SS, 414 SS, 416 SS, 420 SS, and 422 SS. The designation of the composition of the stainless steel layer can be affected by the concentration of trace elements in the carbon steel substrate (e.g., nickel, carbon, manganese, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, and nitrogen), by the addition of one or more trace elements to the as deposited chromium, or by the addition of one or more trace elements by post treatment of the as-deposited chromium (e.g., by solution, deposition, or ion

implantation methods). Figure 5 shows an SEM cross section of the stainless steel region, bonding region and core regions notably omitting any observable distinction (e.g., interface) between the respective regions.

[0047] Figures 8 and 9 show EDX and SEM data of a 300 series stainless steel carried by a carbon steel core that was made by heating the deposited chromium, e.g., as shown in Figures 6 and 7. Figure 8 shows the approximate weight percentages of chromium and nickel as a function of depth. The stainless steel region is comparable to a stainless steel composition designation selected from the group consisting of 301 SS, 302 SS, 303 SS, and 304 SS. Other The designation of the composition of the stainless steel layer can be affected by the concentration of trace elements in the carbon steel substrate (e.g., carbon, manganese, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, and nitrogen), by the addition of one or more trace elements to the as deposited chromium, or by the addition of one or more trace elements by post treatment of the as-deposited chromium (e.g., by solution, deposition, or ion

implantation methods). Furthermore, the designation of the composition of the stainless steel is affected by the concentrations of the chromium and nickel in the stainless steel layer; these concentrations can be increased or decreased independently. Figure 9 shows a SEM cross section of the stainless steel region, bonding region and core regions notably omitting any observable distinction (e.g., interface) between the respective regions.

[0048] The determination of the thickness and composition of the stainless steel region, bonding region, and optionally the core region is determined by cross-sectional analysis of a sample of the herein described products. Preferably, the sample is defined by a 1 cm by 1 cm region of the face of the product. The sample is then cut through the center of the 1 cm by 1 cm region and the face exposed by the cut is polished on a Buehler EcoMet 250 ginder-polisher. A five step polishing process includes 5 minutes at a force of 6 lbs. with a Buehler 180 Grit disk, 4 minutes at a force of 6 lbs. with a Hercules S disk and a 6 μΐη polishing suspension, 3 minutes at a force of 6 lbs. with a Trident 3/6 μΐη disk and a Q μντ polishing suspension, 2 minutes at a force of 6 lbs. with a Trident 3/6 μΐη disk and 3 3 ΐη polishing suspension, and then 1 .5 minutes at a force of 6 lbs. with a microcloth disk and a 0.05 μΐη polishing suspension. The cut and polished face is then in an instrument capable of energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). The above provided grinding-polishing procedure may cross-contaminate distinct layers, as expected the contamination can be consistent across the polished face. Therefore, a baseline measurement of a region that is free of a first element may display a greater than baseline concentration of the first element by EDX (see, for example, Figure 4). The increase in the base line is dependent on the area of the regions polished and the concentration of the respective elements in the polished faces.