METHODS, APPARATUS AND COMPUTER-READABLE MEDIA RELATING TO QUALITY-OF-EXPERIENCE REPORTING IN WIRELESS NETWORKS Technical field [0001] Embodiments of the disclosure relate to wireless communications, and particularly to methods, apparatus and computer-readable media for quality-of-experience reporting in wireless networks. Background QoE measurements [0002] Quality of Experience (QoE) measurements have been specified for Long Term Evolution (LTE) and Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service (UMTS) and are being specified for New Radio (NR). The purpose of these application layer measurements is to measure the end user experience when using certain applications. Currently QoE measurements for streaming services and for Mobility Telephony Service for IP Multimedia Subsystem (MTSI) services are supported. [0003] The solutions in LTE and UMTS are similar with the overall principles as follows. Quality of Experience Measurement Collection enables configuration of application layer measurements in the user equipment (UE) and transmission of QoE measurement result files by means of radio resource control (RRC) signalling. An application layer measurement configuration, received from Operations and Maintenance (OAM) or the core network (CN) is encapsulated in a transparent container, which is forwarded to the UE in a downlink RRC message. Application layer measurements received the from UE's higher layers are encapsulated in a transparent container and sent to the network in an uplink RRC message. The result container is forwarded to a Trace Collector Entity (TCE) or, equivalently, a Measurement Collector Entity (MCE). [0004] In 3GPP release 17 a study item for “Study on NR QoE management and optimizations for diverse services” has been carried out. The purpose of the study item was to study solutions for QoE measurements in NR. QoE management in NR will collect not just the experience parameters of streaming services but also consider the typical performance requirements of diverse services (e.g. augmented reality, virtual reality and ultra-reliable low- latency communications). [0005] The measurements may be initiated towards the radio access network (RAN) in a management-based manner, i.e. from an OAM node in a generic way e.g. for a group of UEs, or they may also be initiated in a signaling-based manner, i.e. initiated from CN to RAN e.g. for a single UE. The configuration of the measurement includes the measurement details, which is encapsulated in a container that is transparent to RAN. [0006] When initiated via the core network, the measurement is started towards a specific UE. For the LTE case, the "TRACE START" S1 Application Protocol (S1AP) message is used, which carries, among others, the details about the measurement configuration the application should collect (in the “Container for application layer measurement configuration” information element (IE), transparent to the RAN) and the details to reach the trace collection entity to which the measurements should be sent. [0007] The RAN is not aware of when the streaming session is ongoing in the UE. The Access Stratum (AS) is also not aware of when the measurements are ongoing. It is an implementation decision when RAN stops the measurements. Typically, it is done when the UE has moved outside the measured area. [0008] One opportunity provided by this legacy solution is to be able to keep the QoE measurement for the whole session, even during handover situation. QoE measurement in E-UTRAN E-UTRAN - Application layer measurement capabilities [0009] For Evolved UMTS Terrestrial RAN (E-UTRAN), the UE capability transfer procedure is used to transfer UE radio access capability information from the UE to E-UTRAN, as shown in Figure 1. [0010] The UE-EUTRA-Capability IE is used to convey the E-UTRA UE Radio Access Capability Parameters and the Feature Group Indicators for mandatory features to the network. [0011] In the response message “UECapabilityInformation”, the UE can include the “UE- EUTRA-Capability” IE. The “UE-EUTRA-Capability” IE may include the UE-EUTRA- Capability-v1530-IE which can be used by the UE to indicate whether or not the UE supports QoE Measurement Collection for streaming services and/or MTSI services, as detailed in the “MeasParameters-v1530” encoding below. [0012] The contribution CR 4297 (R2-2004624) for 3GPP TS 36.331 v16.0.0 at the 3GPP TSG RAN2 Meeting #110 proposed an extension of the “UE-EUTRA-Capability” IE that, within the “UE-EUTRA-Capability-v16xy-IE” may include a “measParameters-v16xy” comprising the qoe-Extensions-r16 IE. The qoe-Extensions-r16 IE may be used to indicate whether the UE supports the release 16 extensions for QoE Measurement Collection, i.e. if the UE supports more than one QoE measurement type at a time and if the UE supports the signaling of withinArea, sessionRecordingIndication, qoe-Reference, temporaryStopQoE and restartQoE. E-UTRAN – Application layer measurement reporting [0013] The purpose of the “Application layer measurement reporting” procedure described in 3GPP TS 36.331 v16.0.0 and shown in Figure 2 is to inform E-UTRAN about application layer measurement report. [0014] A UE capable of application layer measurement reporting in RRC_CONNECTED may initiate the procedure when configured with application layer measurement, i.e. when measConfigAppLayer has been configured by E-UTRAN using an RRC connection reconfiguration. [0015] Upon initiating the procedure, the UE shall: 1> if configured with application layer measurement, and SRB4 is configured, and the UE has received application layer measurement report information from upper layers: 2> set the measReportAppLayerContainer in the MeasReportAppLayer message to the value of the application layer measurement report information; 2> set the serviceType in the MeasReportAppLayer message to the type of the application layer measurement report information; 2> submit the MeasReportAppLayer message to lower layers for transmission via SRB4. E-UTRAN – QoE measurement configuration setup and release – RRC signaling [0016] The RRCConnectionReconfiguration message is used to reconfigure the UE to setup or release the UE for Application Layer measurements. This is signaled in the measConfigAppLayer-15 IE within the “OtherConfig” IE. [0017] The setup includes the transparent container measConfigAppLayerContainer which specifies the QoE measurement configuration for the Application of interest and the serviceType IE to indicate the Application (or service) for which the QoE measurements are being configured. Supported services are streaming and MTSI. [0018] The contribution CR 4297 (R2-2004624) for 3GPP TS 36.331 v16.0.0 at the 3GPP TSG RAN2 Meeting #110 proposed to extend the QoE measurement configuration. [0019] The measConfigAppLayerToAddModList-r16 may be used to add or modify multiple QoE measurement configurations (up to maxQoE-Measurement-r16). The measConfigAppLayerToReleaseList-r16 IE may be used to remove multiple QoE measurement configuration (up to maxQoE-Measurement-r16). E-UTRAN - QoE measurement reporting – RRC signaling [0020] As specified in 3GPP TS 36.331 v16.0.0, the MeasReportAppLayer RRC message is used by the UE to send to the E-UTRAN node the QoE measurement results of an Application (or service). The service for which the report is being sent is indicated in the “serviceType” IE. [0021] The contribution CR 4297 (R2-2004624) for 3GPP TS 36.331 v16.0.0 at the 3GPP TSG RAN2 Meeting #110 proposed to extend the MeasReportAppLayer IEs introducing a QoE reference comprising the PLMN identity and the identifier of the QoE Measurement Collection. [0022] For E-UTRAN, an example of desired UE behavior for Application layer measurement reporting is described in CR 4297 (R2-2004624): UE Application layer measurement configuration The “UE Application layer measurement configuration” IE is described in 3GPP TS 36.413 v16.3.0 and TS 36.423 v16.3.0. Streaming service overview 3GP-DASH Profiles [0023] As specified in 3GPP TS 26.247 v16.4.1, clause 7.3 profiles of dynamic adaptive streaming over HTTP (3GP-DASH) are defined to enable interoperability and the signaling of the use of features etc. A profile refers to a set of specific restrictions. Those restrictions might be on features of the Media Presentation Description (MPD) as defined in the same specification (clause 8), Segment formats (as for example defined as defined in the same specification, clause 9) , usage of the network, codec(s) used, content protection formats, or on quantitative measures such as bit-rates, segment lengths, screen size, and so on. [0024] The following profiles are indicated in 3GPP TS 26.247 v16.4.1: - 3GPP Adaptive HTTP Streaming (Release-9 AHS) - 3GP-DASH Release-10 Profile - 3GP-DASH Release 11 multiview stereoscopic 3D video profile - 3GP-DASH Release 11 frame-packed stereoscopic 3D video profile [0025] Moreover, in the same specification, it is indicated that if used for TeleVision (TV) over 3GPP services, 3GP-DASH clients shall support the DASH features defined in clause 5 of TS 26.116 v16.2.0. Media Codecs [0026] For 3GP-DASH clients supporting a particular continuous media type, media decoders are specified in TS 26.234 v16.0.0, clause 7.2 for speech, 7.3 for audio, 7.4 for video, 7.9 for timed text and 7.11 for timed graphics. Media Presentation Description [0027] The MPD describes a Media Presentation, i.e. a bounded or unbounded presentation of media content. In particular, it defines formats to announce resource identifiers for Segments and to provide the context for these identified resources within a Media Presentation. These resource identifiers are HTTP- universal resource locators (URLs) possibly combined with a byte range. [0028] The format of the Media Presentation Description in 3GP-DASH is defined in clause 8.2 of 3GPP TS 26.247 v16.4.1. [0029] Clause 8.4 of the same specification describes the Hierarchical Data Model for DASH Media Presentation. [0030] A Media Presentation is described in the MPD element that is contained in an MPD document and consists of a sequence of one or more Periods. [0031] Periods are further subdivided as follows: - each Period contains one or more groups. Groups consist of Adaptation Sets. - in case an Adaptation Set contains multiple media content components, then each media content component is described individually - each Adaptation Set contains one or more Representations - a Representation may contain one or more Sub-Representations [0032] Adaptation Sets, Representations and Sub-Representations share common attributes and elements that are described in clause 8.4.3.2 of 3GPP TS 26.247 v16.4.1. [0033] Adaptation Sets, Representations and Sub-Representations contain mandatory elements and attributes specified in ISO/IEC 23009-1 and may contain additional attributes and elements, indicated respectively in clauses 8.4.3.3, 8.4.3.4 and 8.4.3.5 of 3GPP TS 26.247 v16.4.1. [0034] Among others, an AdaptationSet element used in 3GP-DASH may contain the following: - @minBandwidth - @maxBandwidth - @minWidth - @maxWidth - @minHeight - @maxHeight - @minFrameRate - @maxFrameRate [0035] Among others, a Representation element used in 3GP-DASH may contain the following: - Representation@qualityRanking [0036] Among others a SubRepresentation element used in 3GP-DASH may contain the following: - SubRepresentation@level - SubRepresentation@bandwidth QoE metrics for streaming service [0037] The specification concerning QoE metrics for Progressive Download and 3GP- DASH can be found in 3GPP TS 26.247 v16.4.1, clause 10. [0038] The following metrics shall be supported by progressive download clients supporting the QoE reporting feature: - Average Throughput, - Initial Playout Delay - Buffer Level - Play List - Device information. [0039] The following metrics shall be supported by 3GP-DASH clients supporting the QoE reporting feature: - List of Representation Switch Events - Average Throughput, - Initial Playout Delay, - Buffer Level, - Play List, - MPD Information, - Device information. Representation switch events [0040] This metric is used to report a list of representation switch events that took place during the measurement interval. A representation switch event signals the client’s decision to perform a representation switch from the currently presented representation to a new representation that is later presented. As part of each representation switch event, the client reports the identifier for the new representation, the time of the switch event (in wall clock time) when the client sends the first HTTP request for the new representation, and the media time of the earliest media sample played out from the new representation. Initial Playout Delay [0041] This metric, described in the table below, signals the initial playout delay at the start of the streaming of the presentation. The metric is only logged at the time point when the playout of streaming video begins. Play List [0042] Decoded samples are generally rendered in presentation time sequence, each at or close to its specified presentation time. A compact representation of the information flow can thus be constructed from a list of time periods during which samples of a single representation were continuously rendered, such that each was presented at its specified presentation time to some specific level of accuracy (e.g. +/-10 ms). [0043] Such a sequence of periods of continuous delivery is started by a user action that requests playout to begin at a specified media time (this could be a "play", "seek" or "resume" action) and continues until playout stops either due to a user action, the end of the content, or a permanent failure. [0044] The table below defines the play list event metric.

[0045] The trace may include entries for different representations that overlap in time, because multiple representations are being rendered simultaneously, for example one audio and one video representation. [0046] The playlist includes user actions about start/stop, but also other non-user actions such as adaptation and rebuffering. Thus, the playlist may be used to derive many other metrics, and an example calculation of a few stalling-related metrics is shown below. [0047] Assume a user at wall-clock time hh:mm:ss = 09:00:00 clicks to start a 60-second video with the following playout characteristics as shown in Figure 3: - 5 seconds of initial stalling - 10 seconds playing with representation 1 - 15 seconds of stalling - 20 seconds playing with representation 2 - 30 seconds playing with representation 1 [0048] This would result in the following (somewhat simplified in this example) playout list being reported by the client: Playlist Entry#1 start = 09:00:00 mstart = 00:00:00 starttype = New playout request Trace Traceentry#1 representationid = 1 start = 09:00:05 sstart = 00:00:00 duration = 10 seconds stopreason = rebuffering Traceentry#2 representationid = 2 start = 09:00:30 sstart = 00:00:10 duration = 20 seconds stopreason = representation switch Traceentry#3 representationid = 1 start = 09:00:50 sstart = 00:00:30 duration = 30 seconds stopreason = end of content [0049] The number of stalling occurrences may be calculated by counting how many times a stop reason is specified as "rebuffering". [0050] The time duration for a stalling event may be calculated based on the time difference between the end time of a trace entry with stopreason equal to "rebuffering", and the start time of the next trace entry. In the example above the stalling starts at "Traceentry#1, (start + duration)" = 09:00:05 + 10 secs = 09:00:15, and ends at "Traceentry#2, start" = 09:00:30. Thus the length of the stalling is 15 seconds MPD Information [0051] This metric can be used to report Representation information from the MPD, so that reporting servers without direct access to the MPD can understand the used media characteristics. [0052] The metric is reported whenever the client sends any other quality metrics report containing references to a Representation which MPD information has still not been reported. [0053] The table below defines the MPD information for quality reporting. MPD Information for Quality Reporting Average Throughput [0054] This metric in the table below indicates the average throughput that is observed by the client during the measurement interval.

Buffer Level [0055] Annex D.4.5 in ISO/IEC 23009-1 defines the metrics for buffer level status events. This metric provides a list of buffer occupancy level measurements carried out during playout. Playout Delay for Media Start-up [0056] This metric in the table below indicates the waiting time that the user experiences for media start-up. The metric is only logged at the time point when the media start-up happens. Device information [0057] This metric contains information about the displayed video resolution as well as the physical screen characteristics. If the video is rendered in full-screen mode, the video resolution usually coincides with the characteristics of the full physical display. If the video is rendered in a smaller subwindow, the characteristics of the actual video window shown shall be logged. [0058] If known by the DASH client, the physical screen width and the horizontal field- of-view shall also be logged. [0059] The metric is logged at the start of each QoE reporting period, and whenever the characteristics changes during the session (for instance if the UE is rotated from horizontal to vertical orientation, or if the video subwindow size is changed). [0060] The table below defines the device information metrics. If an individual metric cannot be logged, its value shall be set to 0 (zero). VR Device information [0061] This metric contains information about the device, and is logged at the start of each session and whenever changed (for instance if the rendered field-of-view for the device is adjusted). If an individual metric cannot be logged, its value shall be set to 0 (zero) or to the empty string. Summary [0062] There currently exist certain challenge(s). The current standardized solution does not allow RAN to be aware of the QoE. The QoE study item conclusions related to RAN visible QoE were captured in the technical report TR 38.890 v17.0.0. This technical report describes that the RAN may not be able to understand or make use of legacy QoE metrics, as they are assembled by the OAM, sent inside containers and intended to be processed by the Measurement Collection Entity in the network. If the RAN needs to make use of the QoE concept, there might be requirements that QoE information should be visible to the RAN. RAN-visible QoE information is simplified QoE information abstracted from QoE metrics by UEs, which the RAN may use for various types of optimization. [0063] The RAN-visible QoE metrics may be derived from individual SA4-defined QoE metrics deemed useful for the RAN, such as buffer level. RAN-visible QoE metrics may for example be simplified values derived from individual useful SA4-defined QoE metrics or combinations of these values. [0064] One or more of the following statements may hold: - The RAN-visible QoE can be used for all services. - The RAN is responsible for assembling the RAN-visible QoE measurement configuration. -The RAN is responsible for triggering i.e. activating the RAN-visible QoE measurement. - Whether the RAN can explicitly ask the UE to report certain RAN-visible QoE metrics, or just an indication to report the fixed set of RAN-visible QoE metrics predefined per service type, is to be studied in the normative phase. - The RAN should be able to configure RAN-visible QoE autonomously for a given service type only if the application layer QoE for the same service type is already configured. - The RAN-visible QoE value can be generated by UE and QoE server. - The RAN-visible QoE values are delivered to the RAN as a separate IE, visible to the RAN. - The RAN is not allowed to change the existing configuration of legacy QoE metrics specified by SA4. [0065] Notwithstanding the disclosure of TR 38.890 v17.0.0, it is still unclear how these metrics are derived. Moreover, earlier solutions may not exploit the full range of QoE metrics available for Progressive Download and 3GP-DASH, in constructing RAN visible QoE metrics. This limits the possibility for the RAN to take appropriate actions based on received RAN visible QoE metrics, and to optimize end-user experience accordingly. [0066] Certain aspects of the disclosure and their embodiments may provide solutions to these or other challenges. The present disclosure contains aspects concerning the configuration, the reporting, and the definition of RAN visible QoE metrics for streaming and other types of services. [0067] The disclosure defines RAN visible QoE metrics for streaming services which RAN can use to observe and optimize performance related to end user services offered by the application layer of UEs. The solution includes configuring the application layer to forward some type of measurement results to RAN outside the container for the QoE report. The information received outside the container is visible to RAN. The proposed solution described for the streaming service, can also apply to other services. [0068] A first aspect of the disclosure provides a method performed by a user equipment for reporting one or more RAN-visible quality-of-experience (QoE) metrics. The method comprises: obtaining a configuration for measuring and reporting one or more RAN-visible QoE metrics to a radio access network (RAN) node. The configuration comprises an instruction as to when the user equipment should transmit QoE reports to the RAN node while a session for which QoE reports are configured is ongoing. The method further comprises: performing measurements in accordance with the configuration, to determine values for the one or more RAN-visible QoE metrics; and transmitting a QoE report to the RAN node in accordance with the configuration. The QoE report comprises the values for the one or more RAN-visible QoE metrics, and the QoE report is configured to be decoded by the RAN node. [0069] Apparatus configured to perform the method according to the first aspect is also provided. For example, in one embodiment there is provided a user equipment comprising processing circuitry. The processing circuitry is configured to cause the user equipment to: obtain a configuration for measuring and reporting one or more RAN-visible QoE metrics to a radio access network (RAN) node. The configuration comprises an instruction as to when the user equipment should transmit QoE reports to the RAN node while a session for which QoE reports are configured is ongoing. The processing circuitry is further configured to cause the user equipment to: perform measurements in accordance with the configuration, to determine values for the one or more RAN-visible QoE metrics; and transmit a QoE report to the RAN node in accordance with the configuration. The QoE report comprises the values for the one or more RAN-visible QoE metrics, and the QoE report is configured to be decoded by the RAN node. [0070] A second aspect of the disclosure provides a method performed by a network node for obtaining one or more RAN-visible quality-of-experience (QoE) metrics. The method comprises: transmitting a configuration message to a user equipment. The configuration message comprises a configuration for measuring and reporting one or more RAN-visible QoE metrics, and the configuration comprises an instruction as to when the user equipment should transmit QoE reports to the network node while a session for which QoE reports are configured is ongoing. The method further comprises: receiving, in accordance with the configuration, a QoE report from the user equipment comprising values for the one or more RAN-visible QoE metrics; and decoding the QoE report. [0071] Apparatus configured to perform the method according to the second aspect is also provided. For example, in one embodiment there is provided a network node comprising processing circuitry. The processing circuitry is configured to cause the network node to: transmit a configuration message to a user equipment. The configuration message comprises a configuration for measuring and reporting one or more RAN-visible QoE metrics, and the configuration comprises an instruction as to when the user equipment should transmit QoE reports to the network node while a session for which QoE reports are configured is ongoing. The processing circuitry is further configured to cause the network node to: receive, in accordance with the configuration, a QoE report from the user equipment comprising values for the one or more RAN-visible QoE metrics; and decode the QoE report. [0072] Certain embodiments may provide one or more of the following technical advantage(s). RAN optimization of end-user services can be based on information available at Application Layer, which, once translated and possibly complemented with information relevant for the RAN, can be used e.g. for improved scheduling decisions and prioritization between users in case of limited radio resources. Moreover, RAN visible QoE metrics can be used as input to AI/ML models to predict end-user satisfaction and take the needed corrective actions. Brief description of the drawings [0073] The present disclosure is described, by way of example only, with reference to the following figures, in which:- [0074] Figure 1 shows the procedure for UE capability transfer in E-UTRAN; [0075] Figure 2 shows the procedure for application layer measurement reporting in E- UTRAN; [0076] Figure 3 is a schematic illustration of an example playout; [0077] Figure 4 is a flowchart of a method performed by a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments of the disclosure; [0078] Figure 5 is a flowchart of a method performed by a network node in accordance with some embodiments of the disclosure; [0079] Figure 6 shows a communication system in accordance with some embodiments of the disclosure; [0080] Figure 7 shows a user equipment in accordance with some embodiments of the disclosure; [0081] Figure 8 shows a network node in accordance with some embodiments of the disclosure; [0082] Figure 9 is a block diagram of a host in accordance with some embodiments of the disclosure; [0083] Figure 10 illustrates a virtualization environment in accordance with some embodiments of the disclosure; and [0084] Figure 11 shows a communication diagram of a host communicating via a network node with a UE over a partially wireless connection in accordance with some embodiments of the disclosure. Detailed description [0085] Some of the embodiments contemplated herein will now be described more fully with reference to the accompanying drawings. Embodiments are provided by way of example to convey the scope of the subject matter to those skilled in the art. [0086] The terms “UE”, “terminal equipment”, “wireless terminal” and “terminal” are used interchangeably. [0087] The term “legacy QoE metrics” refers to the application layer measurements for different services defined in 3GPP SA4 specifications (e.g. TS 26.247 v16.4.1 for 3GP-DASH streaming service and progressive download, or TS 26.118 v16.2.0 for VR profiles for streaming application ), which are delivered from the UE to a network entity via RAN, where RAN is unable to read the QoE reports containing the measured values of these metrics. [0088] The term “RAN visible QoE” and the corresponding abbreviation “RV-QoE” or “rvqoe” are used interchangeably. [0089] When used herein, the term “RAN visible QoE” may comprise RAN visible QoE measurement, RAN visible QoE measurement reporting, RAN visible QoE parameters and metrics, processing of information to derive RAN visible QoE parameters/metrics/information/data, and the term “RAN visible QoE” may also be used to refer to the overall framework for RAN visible QoE. [0090] When used herein, the term “RAN visible QoE measurement” is sometimes used as a synonym to “RAN visible QoE” (as described above) and otherwise used to refer specifically to measurements performed within the RAN visible QoE framework. [0091] The terms “QoE measurement report”, “QoE report”, “measurement report” and “report” are used interchangeably. [0092] The terms “QoE measurement configuration”, QoE measurement and reporting configuration”, “QoE measurement”, “QoE configuration” and “application layer measurement configuration” are used interchangeably. Note that the term “QoE measurement” also can refer to a measurement or data collection performed for the purpose of determining a QoE metric. [0093] The terms “service” and “application” are used interchangeably. [0094] Although the embodiments herein are described using the example of a streaming service, they are equally applicable to other types of services e.g. services whose QoE metrics are a subset or a superset of the QoE metrics defined for the streaming service, even if this applicability is not explicitly indicated in the text of the disclosure. [0095] The term “RAN visible QoE” may be equivalent to, or include, “Lightweight QoE” as discussed below. [0096] Figure 4 depicts a method in accordance with particular embodiments. The method 4 may be performed by a UE or wireless device (e.g. the UE 612 or UE 700 as described later with reference to Figures 6 and 7 respectively). [0097] The method begins at step 402, in which the UE obtains a configuration for quality- of-experience (QoE) measuring and reporting, and specifically for measuring and reporting one or more QoE metrics to a radio access network (RAN) node. [0098] In step 404, the user equipment performs measurements and/or calculations in accordance with the configuration, to determine values for the one or more QoE metrics. [0099] In step 406, the user equipment transmits a QoE report to the RAN node comprising the values for the one or more QoE metrics. The QoE report is configured to be decoded by the RAN node (e.g., the QoE report is in a container which is accessible and/or decodable by the RAN node). The QoE report may itself be transmitted in accordance with the configuration received in step 402. [0100] Each of the steps of the method set out in Figure 4 is now described in more detail. [0101] In step 402, the UE obtains a configuration for measuring and reporting QoE metrics. For example, the configuration may include conditions including one or more thresholds triggering the UE to collect and report to a RAN node one of more RAN visible QoE metrics associated with a streaming or other service. [0102] The configuration may be at least partially received from the RAN node (e.g., a serving node for the UE), through multicast/broadcast or dedicated signalling (e.g., system information, RRC signalling, paging, medium access control control element (MAC CE), etc). The configuration may be at least partially pre-configured in the UE, e.g., during manufacture of the UE, or using an RRCReconfiguration message containing an indication of preconfiguration or by using the conditionalReconfiguration in the RRCReconfiguration message if the preconfiguration is linked to a condition. [0103] The configuration may comprise one or more of the following indications: - an indication, indicating that requested RAN visible QoE metric(s) is(are) derived using only information provided by the Application Layer of the UE - an indication, indicating that the requested RAN visible QoE metric(s) is(are) derived using information provided by the Application Layer of the UE and information concerning the Access Stratum layer of the UE (e.g. radio measurements and/or to radio related events and/or radio configurations) [0104] The configuration may comprise a request to report to the RAN node certain application layer metrics in their legacy form (as defined by SA43GPP specifications, e.g. TS 26.247 v16.4.1 for streaming) in an IE visible to the RAN, but it is the RAN node or another network node that derives the corresponding RAN-visible (RV-)QoE metrics, based on the values of these application layer legacy metrics and, optionally, based on the the abovementioned information concerning the Access Stratum layer of the UE. Alternatively, the derivation of the RV-QOE metrics may be done by the OAM, which reports them to the RAN. [0105] NOTE: Although the “V” in “RV-QOE metric”, suggests that the metric is visible to the RAN, the essential property and the reason for defining the RV-QOE metrics is usefulness to the RAN. So, in the context of this disclosure, a legacy metric copied from the QoE report container into a separate IE readable by RAN may not be useful for the RAN and is hence not necessarily considered a RV-QOE metric. However, its derivative may be useful to the RAN and therefore considered a RV-QOE metric. In general, RV-QOE refers to both the application layer metrics that are useful to the RAN in their legacy form, and it also refers to the derivatives of application layer metrics derived from the legacy form of the metrics, the legacy form not being useful for the RAN, but its derivative is. This embodiment refers to the latter case. [0106] The configuration may comprise one or more configuration parameters pertaining to one or more radio quantities (e.g. a range of Reference Signal Received Power (RSRP) values to which a RAN visible QoE metric refers, e.g. the average of the RSRP values collected over the time between two consecutive reporting of RAN visible QoE metric is in certain range of RSRP, the average of the RSRP values collected over the time between two consecutive reporting of RAN visible QoE metric, the last value of RSRP, the minimum values of RSRPs collected over the time between two consecutive reporting of RAN visible QoE metric, or the minimum values of RSRPs collected over the time between two consecutive reporting of RAN visible QoE metric is in a certain range of RSRP) and/or to radio configuration (e.g. if the reported RAN visible QoE metric applies to a specific RAT, to a certain cell or certain area, to single connectivity, to dual-connectivity, etc). [0107] The configuration may comprise one or more indications concerning RAN visible QoE metric reporting, possibly including the conditions and thresholds for RAN visible QoE metrics measurements reporting, the conditions being application-layer related and/or Access Stratum layer related, as described below with respect to Figure 5. [0108] Although not illustrated in Figure 4, in another embodiment, prior to being configured for collecting and/or reporting RAN visible QoE metrics, the UE may send to a RAN node (e.g., its serving RAN node) its capabilities, including an indication of UE support for collecting and/or reporting of RAN visible QoE metrics. [0109] Step 404 may involve communications between the Application layer in the UE and the Access Stratum layer in the UE. [0110] For example, in one embodiment, the Access Stratum of the UE sends one or more requests/indications to the Application Layer of the UE, requesting the Application Layer to provide to the Access Stratum one or more RAN visible QoE metrics for streaming service (or another service) and/or reports to be used by the Access Stratum to derive RAN visible QoE metrics for streaming service (or another service). The Access Stratum of the UE may, as one embodiment variant, have received the request(s)/indication(s) from a RAN node, e.g. a gNB, wherein, as one option, the request(s)/indication(s) is/are included in a “container” which the Access Stratum of the UE forwards to the Application Layer of the UE and wherein the Access Stratum of the UE may not be able to interpret the content of the container. The request(s)/indication(s) the Access Stratum of the UE forwards to the Application Layer of the UE may contain the instructions to the Application Layer of the UE described below in the embodiments for a RAN node (e.g., with respect to Figure 5) and below in embodiments for the Application Layer of a UE. [0111] In another embodiment, the Access Stratum of the UE receives one or more reports/indications from the Application Layer of the UE, providing one or more reports constituting RAN visible QoE metrics for streaming service (or another service), or to be used by the Access Stratum to derive RAN visible QoE metrics for streaming service (or another service). [0112] In another embodiment, the Access Stratum of the UE derives RAN visible QoE metrics for streaming service using reported values obtained from the Application Layer and radio measurements coupled with the reported values. [0113] In step 406, the UE sends to the RAN node one or more RAN visible QoE metrics associated to a streaming or other service. A non-limiting example can be an indication from the application layer to the access stratum whenever the video representation changes or the video stalls. The UE RRC layer can indicate such events to the network in a list of events (at a later time) or immediately upon the switching between two different events (e.g. a switch between representation video quality #1 and a video stall). Alternatively, the application layer may send a digit e.g., +1 when the quality goes up and another digit e.g., -1 when the quality goes down. [0114] In one embodiment, the RAN-visible QoE metrics are transmitted using RRC signalling, such as the MeasReportAppLayer message as shown in Figure 2, and adapted as follows (where adaptations are shown in underlined font): The MeasReportAppLayer message is used for sending application layer measurement report. Signalling radio bearer: SRB4

[0115] As noted above, in some embodiments, the measurement and/or calculation of QoE metrics takes place in the UE through communication between the Application Layer and the Access Stratum (which governs communication between the UE and the RAN node). Certain aspects of the disclosure may therefore relate to actions taken by the Application Layer in the UE, as set out below. [0116] In one embodiment, the Application Layer of the UE receives from the Access Stratum of the UE one or more requests/indications, requesting the Application Layer to provide to the Access Stratum one or more RAN visible QoE metrics for streaming service and/or reports to be used by the Access Stratum to derive RAN visible QoE metrics for streaming service (or other services). [0117] The application layer may derive the RAN visible QoE metrics based on the instruction/request received from the Access Stratum. [0118] The request or indication from the Access Stratum may indicate that the application shall send an extrapolated/transformed version of the legacy QoE metrics or the actual QoE metrics in a RAN visible format. In two non-limiting examples, the Access Stratum may request an integer value of a buffer level, or it may request the actual value of the initial delay. [0119] In another embodiment, the request(s) contain(s) instructions on when the Application Layer of the UE should send reports about RAN visible QoE metrics while a session for the concerned application is ongoing, e.g. one or more of: - The Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports periodically with a certain periodicity. - The Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports at a certain time or during a certain time interval. - The Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports when one or more configured or specified condition(s) is/are fulfilled, such as: o A condition related to the application buffer level. For instance, a condition could be that a report should be sent if the buffer level goes below a configure or specified threshold. Initially, the buffer is empty, but for the condition to be regarded as fulfilled, the buffer level must first have exceeded the threshold. This may optionally be complemented with a time based condition, stating that if, after a configured or specified time period after the start of the application session, the buffer level has still not exceeded the configured or specified threshold, then a report should be sent. Similarly, if the buffer level, after having been above the configured or specified threshold, goes below the threshold, and this triggers a report to be sent, then another report may be sent if the buffer level remains below the threshold for a configured or specified time period. Yet another option is to configure two thresholds, one (lower) for decreasing buffer level and one (higher) for increasing buffer level, where the two thresholds thereby implement a hysteresis. As another example, a condition could be that a report should be sent if a measure of the variability of the buffer level exceeds a configured or specified threshold. o A condition related to the playout delay for media startup. For instance, a condition could be that a report should be sent if the playout delay for media start-up exceeds a configured or specified threshold. o A condition related to the initial playout delay. For instance, a condition could be that a report should be sent if the initial playout delay exceeds a configured or specified threshold. As another example, a condition could be that if the initial playout delay exceeds a configured or specified threshold, then the Application Layer of the UE should send reports containing RAN visible QoE metrics during the course of the application session, e.g. periodically, but otherwise the Application Layer of the UE should not send any reports during the course of the application session. As yet another example, a condition could be that if the initial playout delay exceeds a configured or specified threshold, then the Application Layer of the UE should send reports containing RAN visible QoE metrics during the course of the application session, when triggered by another trigger condition (e.g. one of the trigger conditions described in this section), but otherwise the Application Layer of the UE should ignore other possible trigger conditions during the course of the application session. o A condition related to stalling. For instance, the condition could be that a report should be sent if a stalling condition remains for more than a configured or specified time period. Or the condition could be that a report should be sent if/when the accumulated stalling time during the application session exceeds a configured or specified time period. Or the condition could be that a report should be sent if/when the accumulated stalling time calculated using a leaky bucket principle (e.g. that the accumulated stalling time is decreased with a constant rate while no stalling is present) exceeds a configured or specified threshold/time period. Or the condition could be that the number of stalling events during the application session exceeds a configured or specified number/threshold. As one option, the concerned stalling pertains to the playout of the media (e.g. events of stalling/lagging video). As another option, the concerned stalling pertains to the media stream between the application server and the application client (e.g. interruptions in the media flow, e.g. where “stalling” may be defined as an interruption or time interval between two consecutive data packets or media segments exceeding a configured or specified (or otherwise derived) threshold). As yet another option, stalling could be defined as the state when the application buffer in the client is empty, or a state where the application buffer in the client has remained empty for a time period exceeding a configured or specified (or otherwise derived) threshold. - The Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports when a certain (configured or specified) amount of data (e.g. D ₁ bytes) has been received from the application server. Optionally, the instruction may further include that a second report should be sent when the Application Layer of the UE has received a (configured or specified) additional amount of data (e.g. D ₂ bytes received in addition to the previously received D ₁ bytes), and optionally a third report when the Application Layer of the UE has received a (configured or specified) further additional amount of data (e.g. D3 bytes received in addition to the previously received D1 + D2 bytes), etc. As one option, the data amount limits for all reports are the same, i.e. (with three data amounts as an example) D1 = D2 = D3. As another option, each data amount may be larger than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three data amounts as an example) D1 ≤ D2 ≤ D ₃ . As yet another option, each data amount may be smaller than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three data amounts as an example) D1 ≥ D2 ≥ D3. - The Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports when a certain (configured or specified) amount of data (e.g. D1 bytes) has been played out. Optionally, the instruction may further include that a second report should be sent when the Application Layer of the UE has played out an additional amount of data (e.g. D ₂ bytes played out in addition to the previously received D1 bytes), and optionally a third report when the Application Layer of the UE has played out a further additional amount of data (e.g. D3 bytes played out in addition to the previously received D1 + D2 bytes), etc. As one option, the data amount limits for all reports are the same, i.e. (with three data amounts as an example) D1 = D2 = D3. As another option, each data amount may be larger than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three data amounts as an example) D1 ≤ D2 ≤ D3. As yet another option, each data amount may be smaller than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three data amounts as an example) D ₁ ≥ D ₂ ≥ D ₃ . - The Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports when media content representing a certain (configured or specified) playout time period (e.g. T ₁ ) has been received from the application server. Optionally, the instruction may further include that a second report should be sent when media content representing a certain (configured or specified) additional playout time period (e.g. T ₂ in addition to the previous T1) has been received from the application server, and optionally a third report when the Application Layer of the UE has received media content representing a (configured or specified) further additional playout time period (e.g. T ₃ in addition to the previous T1 + T2 bytes), etc. As one option, the playout time period limits for all reports are the same, i.e. (with three playout time period limits as an example) T1 = T2 = T ₃ . As another option, each playout time period limit may be larger than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three playout time period limits as an example) T ₁ ≥ T ₂ ≥ T ₃ . As yet another option, each playout time period limit may be smaller than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three playout time period limits as an example) T1 ≥ T2 ≥ T3. - The Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports when media content representing a certain (configured or specified) playout time period (e.g. T1) has been played out. Optionally, the instruction may further include that a second report should be sent when media content representing a certain (configured or specified) additional playout time period (e.g. T ₂ in addition to the previous T ₁ ) has been played out, and optionally a third report when the Application Layer of the UE has played out media content representing a (configured or specified) further additional playout time period (e.g. T3 in addition to the previous T1 + T2 bytes), etc. As one option, the playout time period limits for all reports are the same, i.e. (with three playout time period limits as an example) T ₁ = T ₂ = T ₃ . As another option, each playout time period limit may be larger than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three playout time period limits as an example) T ₁ ≤ T ₂ ≤ T ₃ . As yet another option, each playout time period limit may be smaller than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three playout time period limits as an example) T1 ≥ T2 ≥ T3. - The Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports when a certain fraction (e.g. F ₁ ) of the estimated, predicted or known total media data has been received from the application server. Optionally, the instruction may further include that a second report should be sent when the Application Layer of the UE has received a (configured or specified) additional fraction (e.g. F ₂ in addition to the preceding F ₁ ) of the estimated, predicted or known total media data, and optionally a third report when the Application Layer of the UE has received a (configured or specified) further additional fraction (e.g. F3 in addition to the preceding F1 + F2) of the estimated, predicted or known total media data, etc. As one option, the fraction limits for all reports are the same, i.e. (with fraction limits as an example) F1 = F2 = F3. As another option, each fraction limit may be larger than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three fraction limits as an example) F ₁ ≤ F ₂ ≤ F ₃ . As yet another option, each data amount may be smaller than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three fraction limits as an example) F ₁ ≥ F ₂ ≥ F ₃ . - Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports when a certain fraction (e.g. F ₁ ) of the estimated, predicted or known total media data has been played out. Optionally, the instruction may further include that a second report should be sent when the Application Layer of the UE has played out a (configured or specified) additional fraction (e.g. F ₂ in addition to the preceding F ₁ ) of the estimated, predicted or known total media data, and optionally a third report when the Application Layer of the UE has played out a (configured or specified) further additional fraction (e.g. F3 in addition to the preceding F ₁ + F ₂ ) of the estimated, predicted or known total media data, etc. As one option, the fraction limits for all reports are the same, i.e. (with fraction limits as an example) F1 = F2 = F3. As another option, each fraction limit may be larger than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three fraction limits as an example) F ₁ ≤ F2 ≤ F3. As yet another option, each data amount may be smaller than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three fraction limits as an example) F ₁ ≥ F ₂ ≥ F ₃ . - Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports when a certain fraction (e.g. F ₁ ) of the estimated, predicted or known total application session duration has elapsed. Optionally, the instruction may further include that a second report should be sent when a (configured or specified) additional fraction (e.g. F2 in addition to the preceding F ₁ ) of the estimated, predicted or known total application session duration has elapsed, and optionally a third report when a (configured or specified) further additional fraction (e.g. F3 in addition to the preceding F1 + F2) of the estimated, predicted or known total application session duration has elapsed, etc. As one option, the fraction limits for all reports are the same, i.e. (with fraction limits as an example) F1 = F2 = F3. As another option, each fraction limit may be larger than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three fraction limits as an example) F1 ≤ F2 ≤ F3. As yet another option, each data amount may be smaller than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three fraction limits as an example) F1 ≥ F2 ≥ F3. [0120] As described in more detail below with respect to Figure 5, for reports triggered by conditions related to events, such as the above described conditions related to the application buffer level, the playout delay or stalling situations, the instruction to the Application Layer of the UE may further contain instructions on which RAN visible QoE metrics the triggered report should contain, wherein the indicated RAN visible QoE metrics may be selected to be particularly relevant for analysis of the reason for the occurrence of the triggering event, and/or for facilitating determination of possible corrective, improving or optimizing actions to be performed by the RAN. [0121] In another embodiment, all or a combination of any of the above described application layer related and Access stratum layer related conditions for triggering the UE to send a QoE report, can alternatively be used as triggers for deriving (i.e. calculating) the RV- QOE metrics. [0122] In another embodiment, the Application Layer of the UE sends to the Access Stratum one or more reports constituting RAN visible QoE metrics for streaming service, or reports to be used by the Access Stratum to derive RAN visible QoE metrics for streaming service, wherein this derivation may be done by the Access Stratum in the UE or in the gNB. [0123] Figure 5 depicts a method in accordance with particular embodiments. The method 5 may be performed by a RAN node (e.g. the network node 610 or network node 800 as described later with reference to Figures 6 and 8 respectively). [0124] The method begins at step 502, in which the RAN node transmits a configuration message to a UE for quality-of-experience (QoE) measuring and reporting, and specifically comprising a configuration for measuring and reporting one or more QoE metrics by the UE to the RAN node. In addition to the information in the configuration message, the configuration may be at least partially pre-configured in the UE, e.g., during manufacture, or using an RRCReconfiguration message containing an indication of preconfiguration or by using the conditionalReconfiguration in the RRCReconfiguration message if the preconfiguration is linked to a condition. The configuration message may be transmitted through multicast/broadcast or dedicated signalling (e.g., system information, RRC signalling, paging, MAC CE etc). In embodiments using RRC signalling, the configuration may be signalled using an RRCReconfiguration message or an RRCSetupComplete message. [0125] In step 504, the RAN node receives a QoE report from the UE comprising the values for the one or more QoE metrics. The QoE report is configured to be decoded by the RAN node (e.g., the QoE report is in a container which is accessible and/or decodable by the RAN node). The QoE report may itself be transmitted in accordance with the configuration transmitted in step 502. [0126] In step 506, the RAN node decodes the QoE report (i.e., as opposed to forwarding it on to the core network without decoding). [0127] Several of the steps of the method set out in Figure 5 are now described in more detail. [0128] In one embodiment, in step 502, the RAN node sends to a UE one or more configuration parameters, indicating to the UE to collect and/or to report to the RAN node, one or more RAN visible QoE metrics associated to a service (e.g. 3G-DASH streaming and progressive download), or inputs that can be used to derive the RAN visible QoE metrics. In one embodiment, the RAN node indicates that requested RAN visible QoE metric(s) is (are) derived using only information provided by the Application Layer of the UE. In another embodiment, the RAN node indicates that the requested RAN visible QoE metric(s) is(are) derived using information provided by both the Application Layer of the UE and information concerning the Access Stratum layer of the UE (e.g. radio measurements and/or to radio related events and/or radio configurations). In a yet further embodiment, the RAN node requests the UE to report to the RAN certain legacy application layer metrics (as defined by SA43GPP specifications, e.g. TS 26.247 for streaming) in an IE visible to the RAN, but it is the RAN node or another network node that derives the corresponding RV-QOE metrics, based on the values of these legacy application layer metrics and, optionally, based on the abovementioned information concerning the Access Stratum layer of the UE. Alternatively, the derivation of the RV-QOE metrics may be done by the OAM, which reports them to the RAN. [0129] NOTE: Although the “V” in “RV-QOE metric”, suggests that the metric is visible to the RAN, the essential property and the reason for defining the RV-QOE metrics is usefulness to the RAN. So, in the context of this disclosure, a legacy metric copied from the QoE report container into a separate IE readable by RAN may not be useful for the RAN and is hence not necessarily considered RV-QOE metric, but its derivative may be useful to the RAN and is considered a RV-QOE metric. In general, RV-QOE refers to both the application layer metrics that are useful to the RAN in their legacy form, and it also refers to the derivatives of application layer metrics, derived from the legacy form of the metrics, the legacy form not being useful for the RAN, but its derivative is. This option refers to the latter case. [0130] In another embodiment, the configuration message can indicate information (such as configuration parameters and conditions such as measurement and/or reporting thresholds) concerning the Access Stratum of the UE, in relation to measuring and reporting the requested RAN visible QoE metric(s): o The configuration may comprise one or more configuration parameters and conditions pertaining to one or more radio quantities (e.g. a range of RSRP values to which a RAN visible QoE metric refers, e.g. the average of the RSRP values collected over the time between two consecutive reporting of RAN visible QoE metric is in certain range of RSRP, the average of the RSRP values collected over the time between two consecutive reporting of RAN visible QoE metric, the last value of RSRP, the minimum values of RSRPs collected over the time between two consecutive reporting of RAN visible QoE metric, or the minimum values of RSRPs collected over the time between two consecutive reporting of RAN visible QoE metric is in a certain range of RSRP) and/or to radio configuration (e.g. if the reported RAN visible QoE metric applies to a specific RAT, to a certain cell or certain area, to single connectivity, to dual-connectivity). One non-limiting example can be to configure the UE to add a list of measResultServingCell to the RV-QoE report collected during the time that the application level QoE measurement e.g., buffer level is measured. o The configuration message may comprise the parameters and conditions for RAN visible QoE metric collection/measurement and/or parameters and conditions for RAN visible QoE metric reporting: o events concerning the Access Stratum of the UE (e.g. handovers, other mobility related events, radio link failures etc.) [0131] In other embodiments, the configuration may comprise instructions on when the Application Layer of the UE should send reports about RAN visible QoE metrics while a session for the concerned application is ongoing. Such instructions may comprise e.g. one or more of: o The Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports periodically with a certain periodicity. o The Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports at a certain time or during a certain time interval. o The Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports when one or more configured or specified condition(s) is/are fulfilled, such as: o A condition related to the application buffer level. For instance, a condition could be that a report should be sent if the buffer level goes below a configured or specified threshold. Initially, the buffer is empty, but for the condition to be regarded as fulfilled, the buffer level must first have exceeded the threshold. This may optionally be complemented with a time based condition, stating that if, after a configured or specified time period after the start of the application session, the buffer level has still not exceeded the configured or specified threshold, then a report should be sent. Similarly, if the buffer level, after having been above the configured or specified threshold, goes below the threshold, and this triggers a report to be sent, then another report may be sent if the buffer level remains below the threshold for a configured or specified time period. Yet another option is to configure two thresholds, one (lower) for decreasing buffer level and one (higher) for increasing buffer level, where the two thresholds thereby implement a hysteresis. As another example, a condition could be that a report should be sent if a measure of the variability of the buffer level exceeds a configured or specified threshold. o A condition related to the playout delay for media startup. For instance, a condition could be that a report should be sent if the playout delay for media start-up exceeds a configured or specified threshold. o A condition related to the initial playout delay. For instance, a condition could be that a report should be sent if the initial playout delay exceeds a configured or specified threshold. As another example, a condition could be that if the initial playout delay exceeds a configured or specified threshold, then the Application Layer of the UE should send reports containing RAN visible QoE metrics during the course of the application session, e.g. periodically, but otherwise the Application Layer of the UE should not send any reports during the course of the application session. As yet another example, a condition could be that if the initial playout delay exceeds a configured or specified threshold, then the Application Layer of the UE should send reports containing RAN visible QoE metrics during the course of the application session, when triggered by another trigger condition (e.g. one of the trigger conditions described in this section), but otherwise the Application Layer of the UE should ignore other possible trigger conditions during the course of the application session. o A condition related to stalling. For instance, the condition could be that a report should be sent if a stalling condition remains for more than a configured or specified time period. Or the condition could be that a report should be sent if/when the accumulated stalling time during the application session exceeds a configured or specified time period. Or the condition could be that a report should be sent if/when the accumulated stalling time calculated using a leaky bucket principle (e.g. that the accumulated stalling time is decreased with a constant rate while no stalling is present) exceeds a configured or specified threshold/time period. Or the condition could be that the number of stalling events during the application session exceeds a configured or specified number/threshold. As one option, the concerned stalling pertains to the playout of the media (e.g. events of stalling/lagging video). As another option, the concerned stalling pertains to the media stream between the application server and the application client (e.g. interruptions in the media flow, e.g. where “stalling” may be defined as an interruption or time interval between two consecutive data packets or media segments exceeding a configured or specified (or otherwise derived) threshold). As yet another option, stalling could be defined as the state when the application buffer in the client is empty, or a state where the application buffer in the client has remained empty for a time period exceeding a configured or specified (or otherwise derived) threshold. o The Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports when a certain (configured or specified) amount of data (e.g. D ₁ bytes) has been received from the application server. Optionally, the instruction may further include that a second report should be sent when the Application Layer of the UE has received a (configured or specified) additional amount of data (e.g. D ₂ bytes received in addition to the previously received D1 bytes), and optionally a third report when the Application Layer of the UE has received a (configured or specified) further additional amount of data (e.g. D3 bytes received in addition to the previously received D ₁ + D ₂ bytes), etc. As one option, the data amount limits for all reports are the same, i.e. (with three data amounts as an example) D1 = D2 = D3. As another option, each data amount may be larger than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three data amounts as an example) D1 ≤ D2 ≤ D3. As yet another option, each data amount may be smaller than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three data amounts as an example) D1 ≥ D2 ≥ D3. o The Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports when a certain (configured or specified) amount of data (e.g. D1 bytes) has been played out. Optionally, the instruction may further include that a second report should be sent when the Application Layer of the UE has played out an additional amount of data (e.g. D2 bytes played out in addition to the previously received D1 bytes), and optionally a third report when the Application Layer of the UE has played out a further additional amount of data (e.g. D ₃ bytes played out in addition to the previously received D ₁ + D ₂ bytes), etc. As one option, the data amount limits for all reports are the same, i.e. (with three data amounts as an example) D ₁ = D ₂ = D ₃ . As another option, each data amount may be larger than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three data amounts as an example) D1 ≤ D2 ≤ D3. As yet another option, each data amount may be smaller than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three data amounts as an example) D1 ≥ D2 ≥ D3. o The Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports when media content representing a certain (configured or specified) playout time period (e.g. T ₁ ) has been received from the application server. Optionally, the instruction may further include that a second report should be sent when media content representing a certain (configured or specified) additional playout time period (e.g. T2 in addition to the previous T1) has been received from the application server, and optionally a third report when the Application Layer of the UE has received media content representing a (configured or specified) further additional playout time period (e.g. T ₃ in addition to the previous T1 + T2 bytes), etc. As one option, the playout time period limits for all reports are the same, i.e. (with three playout time period limits as an example) T ₁ = T ₂ = T ₃ . As another option, each playout time period limit may be larger than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three playout time period limits as an example) T1 ≤ T2 ≤ T ₃ . As yet another option, each playout time period limit may be smaller than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three playout time period limits as an example) T ₁ ≥ T ₂ ≥ T ₃ . o The Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports when media content representing a certain (configured or specified) playout time period (e.g. T ₁ ) has been played out. Optionally, the instruction may further include that a second report should be sent when media content representing a certain (configured or specified) additional playout time period (e.g. T ₂ in addition to the previous T ₁ ) has been played out, and optionally a third report when the Application Layer of the UE has played out media content representing a (configured or specified) further additional playout time period (e.g. T3 in addition to the previous T1 + T2 bytes), etc. As one option, the playout time period limits for all reports are the same, i.e. (with three playout time period limits as an example) T1 = T2 = T3. As another option, each playout time period limit may be larger than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three playout time period limits as an example) T ₁ ≤ T ₂ ≤ T ₃ . As yet another option, each playout time period limit may be smaller than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three playout time period limits as an example) T ₁ ≥ T ₂ ≥ T ₃ . o The Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports when a certain fraction (e.g. F ₁ ) of the estimated, predicted or known total media data has been received from the application server. Optionally, the instruction may further include that a second report should be sent when the Application Layer of the UE has received a (configured or specified) additional fraction (e.g. F ₂ in addition to the preceding F ₁ ) of the estimated, predicted or known total media data, and optionally a third report when the Application Layer of the UE has received a (configured or specified) further additional fraction (e.g. F ₃ in addition to the preceding F ₁ + F ₂ ) of the estimated, predicted or known total media data, etc. As one option, the fraction limits for all reports are the same, i.e. (with fraction limits as an example) F1 = F2 = F3. As another option, each fraction limit may be larger than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three fraction limits as an example) F ₁ ≤ F ₂ ≤ F ₃ . As yet another option, each data amount may be smaller than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three fraction limits as an example) F ₁ ≥ F ₂ ≥ F ₃ . o Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports when a certain fraction (e.g. F ₁ ) of the estimated, predicted or known total media data has been played out. Optionally, the instruction may further include that a second report should be sent when the Application Layer of the UE has played out a (configured or specified) additional fraction (e.g. F ₂ in addition to the preceding F ₁ ) of the estimated, predicted or known total media data, and optionally a third report when the Application Layer of the UE has played out a (configured or specified) further additional fraction (e.g. F3 in addition to the preceding F1 + F2) of the estimated, predicted or known total media data, etc. As one option, the fraction limits for all reports are the same, i.e. (with fraction limits as an example) F1 = F2 = F3. As another option, each fraction limit may be larger than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three fraction limits as an example) F ₁ ≤ F ₂ ≤ F ₃ . As yet another option, each data amount may be smaller than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three fraction limits as an example) F ₁ ≥ F ₂ ≥ F ₃ . o Application Layer of the UE may be instructed to send such reports when a certain fraction (e.g. F ₁ ) of the estimated, predicted or known total application session duration has elapsed. Optionally, the instruction may further include that a second report should be sent when a (configured or specified) additional fraction (e.g. F ₂ in addition to the preceding F ₁ ) of the estimated, predicted or known total application session duration has elapsed, and optionally a third report when a (configured or specified) further additional fraction (e.g. F3 in addition to the preceding F1 + F2) of the estimated, predicted or known total application session duration has elapsed, etc. As one option, the fraction limits for all reports are the same, i.e. (with fraction limits as an example) F1 = F2 = F3. As another option, each fraction limit may be larger than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three fraction limits as an example) F ₁ ≤ F2 ≤ F3. As yet another option, each data amount may be smaller than (or equal to) the preceding one, i.e. (with three fraction limits as an example) F1 ≥ F2 ≥ F3. [0132] For reports triggered by conditions related to events, such as the above described conditions related to the application buffer level, the playout delay or stalling situations, the instruction to the Application Layer of the UE may further contain instructions on which RAN visible QoE metrics the triggered report should contain, wherein the indicated RAN visible QoE metrics may be selected to be particularly relevant for analysis of the reason for the occurrence of the triggering event, and/or for facilitating determination of possible actions to be performed by the RAN (e.g. a gNB receiving the report with RAN visible QoE metrics) to improve or optimize the QoE measured by the Application Layer of the UE and/or perceived by a user of the UE, wherein such actions e.g. may comprise changes of the scheduling priority of the UE, changes of the QoS associated with the one or more data flow(s) pertaining to the concerned application, addition of a SCell (in carrier aggregation or dual connectivity mode), etc. [0133] In another embodiment, all or a combination of any of the above described application layer related and Access stratum layer related conditions for triggering the UE to send a QoE report, can alternatively be used as triggers for deriving (i.e. calculating) the RV- QOE metrics and/or as triggers for starting QoE measurements from which RV-QOE metrics can be derived. [0134] In step 504, the RAN node receives, from the UE, a QoE report of RAN visible QoE metrics associated to a streaming or other service. Although not illustrated, in further embodiments, the RAN node may receive RAN visible QoE metrics associated to the service from another RAN node. [0135] As noted above with respect to Figure 4, the transmission of the configuration message in step 502 may be preceded by one or more steps in which the UE transmits an indication of its capabilities to the RAN node, including an indication that the UE is capable of collecting and/or reporting RAN-visible QoE metrics. The transmission of the configuration message in step 502 may therefore be at least partially responsive to receipt of such US capabilities. [0136] The embodiments above, with respect to both Figures 4 and 5, have discussed the measurement and reporting of RAN-visible QoE metrics to the RAN node. The following passages set out further detail regarding these metrics. [0137] In some embodiments, a RAN visible QoE metric can be associated only with information provided by the Application Layer of the UE. In this case the Access Stratum of a UE receives from the Application Layer of the UE an indication, or a value or a measurement, obtained from one or more legacy QoE metrics (defined as part of SA4 specifications), and/or one or more of the fields included in legacy QoE metrics, and which constitutes the RAN visible QoE metric. [0138] In another embodiment, a RAN visible QoE metric can be associated with information provided by the Application Layer and with information provided by the Access Stratum of the UE. In this case the Access Stratum of a UE receives from the Application Layer an indication, or a value or a measurement, obtained from one or more legacy QoE metrics, and/or one or more of the fields included in legacy QoE metrics, and complements it with indication(s) and/or value(s) and/or measurement(s) pertaining to the Access Stratum. The Access Stratum of the UE deduces the RAN visible QoE metric. The Access Stratum of the UE may base a choice of which indication(s), value(s) and/or measurement(s) to complement the information from the Application Layer with on the type(s) of indication(s), value(s) and/or measurement(s) received from the Application Layer, or on the value(s) or setting(s) of the indication(s), value(s) and/or measurement(s) received from the Application Layer. In one variant, the information the Access Stratum of the UE receives from the Application Layer is uninterpretable by the Access Stratum of the UE, e.g. included in a “transparent container”, and the Access Stratum of the UE sends the information received from the Application Layer, e.g. the transparent container, together with the complementing information pertaining to the Access Stratum of the UE to a RAN node, e.g. a gNB. In another variant, the Access Stratum of the UE can interpret the information received from the Application Layer and sends the information received from the Application Layer and the complementing information pertaining to the Access Stratum of the UE to the RAN node/gNB as a single, integrated data structure. When the Access Stratum of the UE can interpret the information received from the Application Layer, the Access Stratum of the UE may optionally process, modify or refine this information before sending it to the RAN node/gNB. Furthermore, when the Access Stratum of the UE can interpret the information received from the Application Layer, Access Stratum of the UE may use this information to adapt, modify or refine the complementing information pertaining to the Access Stratum of the UE. [0139] A RAN visible QoE metric can be associated with one of more of the following aspects related to Access Stratum: o one or more beam or cell level radio measurements of the serving cell or the neighbouring cells (e.g. RSRP, Reference Signal Received Quality (RSRQ), Signal- to-Interference-and-Noise Ratio (SINR), Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR), Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI)), where the association may pertain to conditions (such as thresholds and/or offsets) applied to one or more radio measurement to which the RAN visible QoE metric refers. Non-limiting examples are: - one radio measurement is above a threshold (e.g. RSRP above -90 dBm), - one radio measurement is below a threshold (e.g. RSRP below -90 dBm) - one radio measurement is above a first threshold and below a second threshold (e.g. RSRP above -110 dBm and below -90 dBm) - a first radio measurement is above a first threshold and below a second threshold, and a second radio measurement is above a third threshold and below a fourth threshold (e.g. RSRP above -110 dBm and below -90 dBm, RSRQ above -10 dB and below -6 dB) - a first radio measurement is above/below a first threshold and a second radio measurement is above/below a second threshold (e.g. RSRP above -90 dBm, and RSRQ above -10 dB) - a first radio measurement is offset better/worse than a second radio measurement (e.g. RSRP of one cell is 3 dB better than RSRP of another cell) [0140] The conditions (threshold(s) and/or offset(s)) applied to radio measurements can be preconfigured or indicated to a UE, as part of the configuration for RAN visible QoE measurements, or separately (e.g. via System Information, paging etc.). [0141] As an example, an indication of “poor radio”, or “medium radio”, or “good radio” pertaining to a RAN visible QoE metric can be based on preconfigured thresholds (e.g. on RSRP, RSRQ, SINR) or based on configured thresholds (e.g. level(s) of RSRP which the first RAN node indicates to the UE as part of the configuration for RAN visible QoE measurements). [0142] The conditions may comprise one or more indications pertaining to radio related events and/or radio configurations, such as successful handover, intra-gNB handover, inter- gNB handover, failed handover, establishing dual connectivity (DC), changes in the dual connectivity configuration (e.g. Secondary Cell Group (SCG) release, SCG change), reconfiguration with sync, conditional reconfiguration with sync, Dual Active Protocol Stack (DAPS) handover, Conditional Handover, Random Access Channel (RACH)-less handover, SCell addition (in Carrier Aggregation (CA) or DC), SCG addition (in CA or DC), SCell change (in CA or DC), PSCell change, conditional PSCell change (CPC) and master node / secondary node role switch, change in Radio Access Technology (RAT), indication(s) of success or failure of any of the preceding mobility related events. [0143] The conditions may comprise one or more indications, parameters and/or measurements related to, associated with or performed or derived in conjunction with, one or more mobility related event(s) of any, type including handover, establishing dual connectivity, changes in the dual connectivity configuration (e.g. SCG release, SCG change), reconfiguration with sync, conditional reconfiguration with sync, DAPS handover, Conditional Handover, RACH-less handover, SCell addition (in CA or DC), SCG addition (in CA or DC), SCell change (in CA or DC), PSCell change, conditional PSCell change (CPC) and master node / secondary node role switch, change in RAT: o A timestamp indicating when a handover or other mobility event is initiated. o A timestamp indication when a handover or other mobility event is concluded. o Handover (or other mobility event) interruption time (e.g. in the form of the value of timer T304 when it was stopped). (Note: Timer T304 supervises the handover execution and if the timer expires before the handover is concluded (or the UE has accessed the target cell), the UE concludes that the handover has failed.) o Change in data rate (e.g. before and after the handover and possibly during the handover). o Change in channel quality, e.g. RSRP and/or RSRQ and/or RSSI and/or SNR and/or SINR and/or pathloss (e.g. before and after the handover). o Indication of the type of mobility related event, e.g. (“regular”) handover, reconfiguration with sync, conditional reconfiguration with sync, DAPS handover, Conditional Handover, RACH-less handover, establishing carrier aggregation, establishing dual connectivity, changes in the dual connectivity configuration (e.g. SCG release, SCG change), SCell addition (in CA or DC), SCG addition (in CA or DC), SCell change (in CA or DC), PSCell change, conditional PSCell change (CPC) and master node / secondary node role switch. - Indication of success or failure of any of the above listed mobility related events. o Indication of the source and target cell (e.g. in terms of cell IDs, e.g. Cell Global Identifiers (CGIs) or Physical Cell IDs) in a handover or the cells involved in other mobility related events, such as SCell addition or SCG addition. o The number (and possibly types) of mobility events that occurred during the application session. o The number (and possibly types) of mobility events that occurred during the period during which the data in the report of RAN visible QoE metrics (or the data from which these QoE metrics have been derived) was collected. o The UE’s speed during the mobility event, e.g. derived from Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) measurements (e.g. Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements) and/or accelerometers in the UE and/or Doppler shift measurements. [0144] The conditions may comprise one or more indications pertaining to a transmission mode for application data (where the application data e.g. may be media content such as streamed video data), e.g. related to dual connectivity (DC) or carrier aggregation (CA), e.g. whether the application data is transmitted using only Master Cell Group (MCG) bearer(s), only SCG bearer(s) or both, or bearer(s) conveyed via both MCG cell(s) and SCG cell(s), e.g. split bearer(s), and/or whether transmitted data is duplicated on different transmission paths and/or cells, e.g. an MCG cell and an SCG cell. [0145] Radio link quality measurements can be provided at cell level or beam level including the beam level measurements for Synchronization Signal Block (SSB) beams or Channel State Information Reference Signal (CSI-RS) beams or link beams used to deliver the actual data to the UE. [0146] A RAN visible QoE metric can be associated to one of more of the following aspects related to Application Layer: o indications obtained from one of the QoE metrics for Progressive Download and/or 3G-DASH or one or more of the fields included in legacy QoE metrics. Non-limiting examples of indications are: - indications concerning the delivery of the content, such as: - a copy of the InitialPlayoutDelay metric or a transformed value of it - a copy of the Buffer Level metric or a transformed value of it - a copy of the Average Throughput metric or a transformed value of it - indications concerning quality of delivered content - for Progressive Download or 3GP-DASH, an indication of the quality can be derived from the value of the Representation@id included in the representationid parameter in the Play List, optionally in combination with the subreplevel parameter in the Play List, or from the attribute @qualityRanking of a Representation (part of the Media Presentation Description (MPD) - indications concerning the variation in the quality of delivered content, such as: - the number of changes in quality in a time interval, e.g. obtained from the number of changes of representationid in a Play List, or the number of changes in the representationid-subreplevel combination in a Play List, or the value of Representation Switch Events in a time interval - indications of the worst and the best quality in a time interval, e.g. obtained from the representationid parameter values, optionally in combination with the subreplevel parameter values, in a Play List. - The variation (degradation/improvement) in the quality over time, e.g. obtained from the number of consecutive changes of the representationid parameter (or of the combination of representationid and subreplevel parameters) in a Play List in a time interval, wherein the changes in Representation@id corresponds to consecutive transitions from higher/lower values of qualities for the delivered content to lower/higher values of qualities for the delivered content - indications concerning the application buffer, such as: - the average buffer level during the application session or during a certain time duration, e.g. indicated as a fraction of the full buffer - the buffer level variation, e.g. a value determined as a statistical measure, e.g. the variance or standard deviation measured over a certain time duration or during the application session o indications concerning variants of the streaming service (i.e. variants of the service type indicating a streaming service). In one example, RAN visible QoE metrics for streaming can be distinguished for: “Progressive Download over HTTP”, “3GPP Dynamic Adaptive Streaming over HTTP”, “Virtual Reality” In another example, RAN visible QoE metrics for streaming can be distinguished based on Profile, or Media Codec, and different RAN visible QoE metrics can be defined for: - Profile = “3GPP Adaptive HTTP Streaming (Release-9 AHS)” - Profile = “3GP-DASH Release-10 Profile” - Profile = “3GP-DASH Release 11 multiview stereoscopic 3D video profile” - Profile = “3GP-DASH Release 11 frame-packed stereoscopic 3D video profile” - Media Codec = “speech” - Media Codec = “audio” - Media Codec = “video” - Media Codec = “timed text” - Media Codec = “timed graphics” o mapping between values, or range of values, or variation of values pertaining to one QoE metric or pertaining to one of the fields included within a QoE report - in one example, the Application Layer can provide to the Access Stratum a value (or score) derived from the width and the height of the screen (or of the displayed video), in screen pixels, as reported in the “Device Information” QoE metric. - in another example the Application Layer can provide to the Access Stratum a value (or score) derived from the maximum horizontal field-of-view, per eye, in degrees (horizontalFoV), the vertical field-of-view, per eye, in degrees (verticalFoV), and the Display refresh rate, in Hz (refreshRate) as reported in the “VR Device information” QoE metric. [0147] A RAN visible QoE metric or RAN visible QoE information may also contain MPD information or transformed versions of MPD information or information or parameters derived from MPD information. [0148] RAN visible QoE metrics derived from information at both Application Layer and Access Stratum include the following: o Buffer Level (a value or a score) in poor/medium/good radio conditions o Buffer level variation, e.g. a value determined as a statistical measure, e.g. the variance or standard deviation measured over a certain time duration or during the application session in poor/medium/good radio conditions o Average Throughput Level (a value or a score) in poor/medium/good radio conditions o Initial Playout Delay in poor/medium/good radio conditions o Playout delay for media start-up in poor/medium/good radio conditions o Representation switch to lower quality in poor/medium/good radio conditions - switch to a representation at lower quality, in poor/medium/good radio conditions o Representation switch to higher quality in poor/medium/good radio conditions - switch to a representation at increased quality, in poor/medium/good radio conditions. o Representation switch to lower quality, for one or more score(s) provided by the Application Layer, in poor/medium/good radio conditions - switch to a representation at lower quality, valid for the scores provided by the Application Layer, in poor/medium/good radio conditions. An example can be the following: the Application Layer provides one score associated to a device characteristics (e.g. the screen size). The RAN visible QoE metric can indicate if/when/how many switches to a lower quality for the content delivery occurred during a Playout when the radio coverage is considered poor. o In another embodiment, client/application sends an indication to the UE RRC layer, whenever the representing quality is changed based on what is captured in legacy Play List metric, the indication indicates that the representation of the video is changed. The indication includes the representation ID, - In a variant the representation ID is an integer value so that the higher value indicates higher quality/representation of the video, or the higher value indicates the lower quality/representation of the video - In another variant, the representation ID is a value based on the representation ID described based on the MPD information. In this case, the client/application may send the MPD information to the UE RRC and from UE RRC to the RAN nodes. o In another variant application only reports the video stalling events, i.e., the time that video stalled. The information sent from application to the RRC layer (or access stratum) may include the start time, end time and as well as the video stalling duration. o UE RRC layer sends the indication, including the ID representing the quality of the video at the application layer, or an indication indicating the video stalling events to the network as part of application layer measurement or any kind of other measurement e.g., appending to the Radio Resource Management (RRM) or Minimization of Drive Tests (MDT) related measurements. The RAN node receiving the QoE measurements including the representation ID can forward this information to the Distributed Unit (DU) wherein such information can be used as input to the scheduling or link adaptation algorithms e.g., in classifying the UEs by giving higher or lower scheduling weights to the UEs based on the current representation ID. [0149] RAN visible QoE metrics obtained from information at the Application Layer include the following: o Buffer Level - In absolute values, or mapped to a score - Measured as the average buffer level during the application session or during a certain time duration, e.g. indicated as a fraction of the full buffer o Buffer level variation - Measured and/or indicated as a value determined as a statistical measure, e.g. the variance or standard deviation measured over a certain time duration or during the application session in poor/medium/good radio conditions - Mapped to a score o Average Throughput - In absolute values, or mapped to a score - obtained excluding known inactivity, e.g. due to user request (e.g. pause) o Initial Playout Delay - In absolute values, or mapped to a score o Playout delay for media start-up - in absolute value, or mapped to a score o Metrics from Play List, indicated as absolute values, or in statistical terms (average, minimum, maximum, standard deviation) with respect to a time interval - Representation Switches from higher quality to lower quality, - Representation Switches from higher quality to lower quality and back to higher quality, - Representation Switches from lower quality to higher quality and back to lower quality, - Consecutive Representation Switches from higher quality to lower quality, - Representation Switches from lower quality to higher quality, - a score indicating the experienced quality, e.g., representation ID - Stops (video stalling) due to representation switches, - Stops (video stalling) due to rebuffering o Score associated to a device characteristic - e.g. device characteristics more demanding in terms of bandwidth (e.g. based on screen size) can be associated to higher score, or to a lower score o Score associated to a Profile - e.g. profiles more demanding in terms of content delivery (e.g. a “3GP- DASH Release 11 multiview stereoscopic 3D video profile” compared to a “3GP-DASH Release-10 Profile”) can be associated to higher score, or to a lower score o Score associated to a Media Codec - e.g. more advanced codecs (e.g. a “H.265 (HEVC)” compared to a “H.264 (AVC)”) can be associated to higher score, or to a lower score [0150] The RAN-visible QoE metrics may further comprise so-called “lightweight” QoE metrics, as follows. Lightweight QoE measurements can be obtained by “converting one or more second QoE measurements logged in the conventional format into one or more lightweight QoE metrics”. [0151] Each lightweight QoE metric can be a representation of one of the following: o a conventional QoE metric; o a plurality of different conventional QoE metrics for one application; o a plurality of different lightweight QoE metrics for one application; o respective values of a conventional QoE metric for a plurality of applications, and o respective values of a lightweight QoE metric for a plurality of applications. [0152] Each representation used by a lightweight QoE metric can be one of the following: a concatenation, an index, a score, a rating based on enumerated values, a binary relation to a threshold. [0153] Each conventional QoE metric represented by a lightweight QoE metric can be related to one of the following: throughput, latency, round-trip time, uplink delay, downlink delay, initial playout delay, jitter, buffer level, and consecutive packet losses. [0154] There are various ways to create lightweight QoE metrics, and one significant distinction in this context is whether a lightweight QoE metric is derived from a single conventional QoE metric or from multiple (e.g., all) conventional QoE metrics for an application. An example of the former is one lightweight representation of the average throughput (AvgThroughput) conventional QoE metric and one lightweight representation of the initial playout delay (InitialPlayoutDelay) conventional QoE metric for Progressive Download and DASH. An example of the latter is one lightweight QoE metric that represents both of these conventional QoE metrics. As another example, different subsets of conventional QoE metrics for an application can be represented by respective lightweight QoE metrics. Each subset can include one or more conventional QoE metrics. [0155] Lightweight QoE metrics can be derived from and/or mapped to any of the following conventional QoE metrics: o throughput per TCP socket or per access bearer, (e.g., average, max/min, standard deviation, etc.); o end to end latency (e.g., average, max/min, standard deviation, etc.); o round trip time (e.g., average, max/min, standard deviation, instant value, etc.); o uplink delay (e.g., average, max/min, standard deviation, instant value, etc.); o downlink delay (e.g., average, max/min, standard deviation, instant value, etc.); o jitter of arriving packets (e.g., average, max/min, standard deviation, instant value, etc.); o number of consecutive failures in receiving the packets (e.g., average, max/min, standard deviation, instant value, etc.); o timeliness of the packets (e.g., average, max/min, standard deviation, instant value, etc.); o application level buffer (e.g., average, max/min, standard deviation, instant value, etc.). [0156] Figure 6 shows an example of a communication system 600 in accordance with some embodiments. [0157] In the example, the communication system 600 includes a telecommunication network 602 that includes an access network 604, such as a radio access network (RAN), and a core network 606, which includes one or more core network nodes 608. The access network 604 includes one or more access network nodes, such as network nodes 610a and 610b (one or more of which may be generally referred to as network nodes 610), or any other similar 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) access node or non-3GPP access point. The network nodes 610 facilitate direct or indirect connection of user equipment (UE), such as by connecting UEs 612a, 612b, 612c, and 612d (one or more of which may be generally referred to as UEs 612) to the core network 606 over one or more wireless connections. [0158] Example wireless communications over a wireless connection include transmitting and/or receiving wireless signals using electromagnetic waves, radio waves, infrared waves, and/or other types of signals suitable for conveying information without the use of wires, cables, or other material conductors. Moreover, in different embodiments, the communication system 600 may include any number of wired or wireless networks, network nodes, UEs, and/or any other components or systems that may facilitate or participate in the communication of data and/or signals whether via wired or wireless connections. The communication system 600 may include and/or interface with any type of communication, telecommunication, data, cellular, radio network, and/or other similar type of system. [0159] The UEs 612 may be any of a wide variety of communication devices, including wireless devices arranged, configured, and/or operable to communicate wirelessly with the network nodes 610 and other communication devices. Similarly, the network nodes 610 are arranged, capable, configured, and/or operable to communicate directly or indirectly with the UEs 612 and/or with other network nodes or equipment in the telecommunication network 602 to enable and/or provide network access, such as wireless network access, and/or to perform other functions, such as administration in the telecommunication network 602. [0160] In the depicted example, the core network 606 connects the network nodes 610 to one or more hosts, such as host 616. These connections may be direct or indirect via one or more intermediary networks or devices. In other examples, network nodes may be directly coupled to hosts. The core network 606 includes one more core network nodes (e.g., core network node 608) that are structured with hardware and software components. Features of these components may be substantially similar to those described with respect to the UEs, network nodes, and/or hosts, such that the descriptions thereof are generally applicable to the corresponding components of the core network node 608. Example core network nodes include functions of one or more of a Mobile Switching Center (MSC), Mobility Management Entity (MME), Home Subscriber Server (HSS), Access and Mobility Management Function (AMF), Session Management Function (SMF), Authentication Server Function (AUSF), Subscription Identifier De-concealing function (SIDF), Unified Data Management (UDM), Security Edge Protection Proxy (SEPP), Network Exposure Function (NEF), and/or a User Plane Function (UPF). [0161] The host 616 may be under the ownership or control of a service provider other than an operator or provider of the access network 604 and/or the telecommunication network 602, and may be operated by the service provider or on behalf of the service provider. The host 616 may host a variety of applications to provide one or more services. Examples of such applications include the provision of live and/or pre-recorded audio/video content, data collection services, for example, retrieving and compiling data on various ambient conditions detected by a plurality of UEs, analytics functionality, social media, functions for controlling or otherwise interacting with remote devices, functions for an alarm and surveillance center, or any other such function performed by a server. [0162] As a whole, the communication system 600 of Figure 6 enables connectivity between the UEs, network nodes, and hosts. In that sense, the communication system may be configured to operate according to predefined rules or procedures, such as specific standards that include, but are not limited to: Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM); Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS); Long Term Evolution (LTE), and/or other suitable 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G standards, or any applicable future generation standard (e.g., 6G); wireless local area network (WLAN) standards, such as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11 standards (WiFi); and/or any other appropriate wireless communication standard, such as the Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMax), Bluetooth, Z-Wave, Near Field Communication (NFC) ZigBee, LiFi, and/or any low-power wide-area network (LPWAN) standards such as LoRa and Sigfox. [0163] In some examples, the telecommunication network 602 is a cellular network that implements 3GPP standardized features. Accordingly, the telecommunications network 602 may support network slicing to provide different logical networks to different devices that are connected to the telecommunication network 602. For example, the telecommunications network 602 may provide Ultra Reliable Low Latency Communication (URLLC) services to some UEs, while providing Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB) services to other UEs, and/or Massive Machine Type Communication (mMTC)/Massive IoT services to yet further UEs. [0164] In some examples, the UEs 612 are configured to transmit and/or receive information without direct human interaction. For instance, a UE may be designed to transmit information to the access network 604 on a predetermined schedule, when triggered by an internal or external event, or in response to requests from the access network 604. Additionally, a UE may be configured for operating in single- or multi-RAT or multi-standard mode. For example, a UE may operate with any one or combination of Wi-Fi, NR (New Radio) and LTE, i.e. being configured for multi-radio dual connectivity (MR-DC), such as E-UTRAN (Evolved- UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network) New Radio – Dual Connectivity (EN-DC). [0165] In the example illustrated in Figure 6, the hub 614 communicates with the access network 604 to facilitate indirect communication between one or more UEs (e.g., UE 612c and/or 612d) and network nodes (e.g., network node 610b). In some examples, the hub 614 may be a controller, router, a content source and analytics node, or any of the other communication devices described herein regarding UEs. For example, the hub 614 may be a broadband router enabling access to the core network 606 for the UEs. As another example, the hub 614 may be a controller that sends commands or instructions to one or more actuators in the UEs. Commands or instructions may be received from the UEs, network nodes 610, or by executable code, script, process, or other instructions in the hub 614. As another example, the hub 614 may be a data collector that acts as temporary storage for UE data and, in some embodiments, may perform analysis or other processing of the data. As another example, the hub 614 may be a content source. For example, for a UE that is a VR headset, display, loudspeaker or other media delivery device, the hub 614 may retrieve VR assets, video, audio, or other media or data related to sensory information via a network node, which the hub 614 then provides to the UE either directly, after performing local processing, and/or after adding additional local content. In still another example, the hub 614 acts as a proxy server or orchestrator for the UEs, in particular in if one or more of the UEs are low energy IoT devices. [0166] The hub 614 may have a constant/persistent or intermittent connection to the network node 610b. The hub 614 may also allow for a different communication scheme and/or schedule between the hub 614 and UEs (e.g., UE 612c and/or 612d), and between the hub 614 and the core network 606. In other examples, the hub 614 is connected to the core network 606 and/or one or more UEs via a wired connection. Moreover, the hub 614 may be configured to connect to an M2M service provider over the access network 604 and/or to another UE over a direct connection. In some scenarios, UEs may establish a wireless connection with the network nodes 610 while still connected via the hub 614 via a wired or wireless connection. In some embodiments, the hub 614 may be a dedicated hub – that is, a hub whose primary function is to route communications to/from the UEs from/to the network node 610b. In other embodiments, the hub 614 may be a non-dedicated hub – that is, a device which is capable of operating to route communications between the UEs and network node 610b, but which is additionally capable of operating as a communication start and/or end point for certain data channels. [0167] Figure 7 shows a UE 700 in accordance with some embodiments. As used herein, a UE refers to a device capable, configured, arranged and/or operable to communicate wirelessly with network nodes and/or other UEs. Examples of a UE include, but are not limited to, a smart phone, mobile phone, cell phone, voice over IP (VoIP) phone, wireless local loop phone, desktop computer, personal digital assistant (PDA), wireless camera, gaming console or device, music storage device, playback appliance, wearable terminal device, wireless endpoint, mobile station, tablet, laptop, laptop-embedded equipment (LEE), laptop-mounted equipment (LME), smart device, wireless customer-premise equipment (CPE), vehicle- mounted or vehicle embedded/integrated wireless device, etc. Other examples include any UE identified by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), including a narrow band internet of things (NB-IoT) UE, a machine type communication (MTC) UE, and/or an enhanced MTC (eMTC) UE. [0168] A UE may support device-to-device (D2D) communication, for example by implementing a 3GPP standard for sidelink communication, Dedicated Short-Range Communication (DSRC), vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I), or vehicle- to-everything (V2X). In other examples, a UE may not necessarily have a user in the sense of a human user who owns and/or operates the relevant device. Instead, a UE may represent a device that is intended for sale to, or operation by, a human user but which may not, or which may not initially, be associated with a specific human user (e.g., a smart sprinkler controller). Alternatively, a UE may represent a device that is not intended for sale to, or operation by, an end user but which may be associated with or operated for the benefit of a user (e.g., a smart power meter). [0169] The UE 700 includes processing circuitry 702 that is operatively coupled via a bus 704 to an input/output interface 706, a power source 708, a memory 710, a communication interface 712, and/or any other component, or any combination thereof. Certain UEs may utilize all or a subset of the components shown in Figure 7. The level of integration between the components may vary from one UE to another UE. Further, certain UEs may contain multiple instances of a component, such as multiple processors, memories, transceivers, transmitters, receivers, etc. [0170] The processing circuitry 702 is configured to process instructions and data and may be configured to implement any sequential state machine operative to execute instructions stored as machine-readable computer programs in the memory 710. The processing circuitry 702 may be implemented as one or more hardware-implemented state machines (e.g., in discrete logic, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), application specific integrated circuits (ASICs), etc.); programmable logic together with appropriate firmware; one or more stored computer programs, general-purpose processors, such as a microprocessor or digital signal processor (DSP), together with appropriate software; or any combination of the above. For example, the processing circuitry 702 may include multiple central processing units (CPUs). The processing circuitry 702 may be operable to provide, either alone or in conjunction with other UE 700 components, such as the memory 710, UE 700 functionality. For example, the processing circuitry 702 may be configured to cause the UE 702 to perform the methods as described with reference to Figure 4. [0171] In the example, the input/output interface 706 may be configured to provide an interface or interfaces to an input device, output device, or one or more input and/or output devices. Examples of an output device include a speaker, a sound card, a video card, a display, a monitor, a printer, an actuator, an emitter, a smartcard, another output device, or any combination thereof. An input device may allow a user to capture information into the UE 700. Examples of an input device include a touch-sensitive or presence-sensitive display, a camera (e.g., a digital camera, a digital video camera, a web camera, etc.), a microphone, a sensor, a mouse, a trackball, a directional pad, a trackpad, a scroll wheel, a smartcard, and the like. The presence-sensitive display may include a capacitive or resistive touch sensor to sense input from a user. A sensor may be, for instance, an accelerometer, a gyroscope, a tilt sensor, a force sensor, a magnetometer, an optical sensor, a proximity sensor, a biometric sensor, etc., or any combination thereof. An output device may use the same type of interface port as an input device. For example, a Universal Serial Bus (USB) port may be used to provide an input device and an output device. [0172] In some embodiments, the power source 708 is structured as a battery or battery pack. Other types of power sources, such as an external power source (e.g., an electricity outlet), photovoltaic device, or power cell, may be used. The power source 708 may further include power circuitry for delivering power from the power source 708 itself, and/or an external power source, to the various parts of the UE 700 via input circuitry or an interface such as an electrical power cable. Delivering power may be, for example, for charging of the power source 708. Power circuitry may perform any formatting, converting, or other modification to the power from the power source 708 to make the power suitable for the respective components of the UE 700 to which power is supplied. [0173] The memory 710 may be or be configured to include memory such as random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), programmable read-only memory (PROM), erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM), electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), magnetic disks, optical disks, hard disks, removable cartridges, flash drives, and so forth. In one example, the memory 710 includes one or more application programs 714, such as an operating system, web browser application, a widget, gadget engine, or other application, and corresponding data 716. The memory 710 may store, for use by the UE 700, any of a variety of various operating systems or combinations of operating systems. [0174] The memory 710 may be configured to include a number of physical drive units, such as redundant array of independent disks (RAID), flash memory, USB flash drive, external hard disk drive, thumb drive, pen drive, key drive, high-density digital versatile disc (HD- DVD) optical disc drive, internal hard disk drive, Blu-Ray optical disc drive, holographic digital data storage (HDDS) optical disc drive, external mini-dual in-line memory module (DIMM), synchronous dynamic random access memory (SDRAM), external micro-DIMM SDRAM, smartcard memory such as tamper resistant module in the form of a universal integrated circuit card (UICC) including one or more subscriber identity modules (SIMs), such as a USIM and/or ISIM, other memory, or any combination thereof. The UICC may for example be an embedded UICC (eUICC), integrated UICC (iUICC) or a removable UICC commonly known as ‘SIM card.’ The memory 710 may allow the UE 700 to access instructions, application programs and the like, stored on transitory or non-transitory memory media, to off-load data, or to upload data. An article of manufacture, such as one utilizing a communication system may be tangibly embodied as or in the memory 710, which may be or comprise a device-readable storage medium. [0175] The processing circuitry 702 may be configured to communicate with an access network or other network using the communication interface 712. The communication interface 712 may comprise one or more communication subsystems and may include or be communicatively coupled to an antenna 722. The communication interface 712 may include one or more transceivers used to communicate, such as by communicating with one or more remote transceivers of another device capable of wireless communication (e.g., another UE or a network node in an access network). Each transceiver may include a transmitter 718 and/or a receiver 720 appropriate to provide network communications (e.g., optical, electrical, frequency allocations, and so forth). Moreover, the transmitter 718 and receiver 720 may be coupled to one or more antennas (e.g., antenna 722) and may share circuit components, software or firmware, or alternatively be implemented separately. [0176] In some embodiments, communication functions of the communication interface 712 may include cellular communication, Wi-Fi communication, LPWAN communication, data communication, voice communication, multimedia communication, short-range communications such as Bluetooth, near-field communication, location-based communication such as the use of the global positioning system (GPS) to determine a location, another like communication function, or any combination thereof. Communications may be implemented in according to one or more communication protocols and/or standards, such as IEEE 802.11, Code Division Multiplexing Access (CDMA), Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA), GSM, LTE, New Radio (NR), UMTS, WiMax, Ethernet, transmission control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP), synchronous optical networking (SONET), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), QUIC, Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), and so forth. [0177] Regardless of the type of sensor, a UE may provide an output of data captured by its sensors, through its communication interface 712, via a wireless connection to a network node. Data captured by sensors of a UE can be communicated through a wireless connection to a network node via another UE. The output may be periodic (e.g., once every 15 minutes if it reports the sensed temperature), random (e.g., to even out the load from reporting from several sensors), in response to a triggering event (e.g., when moisture is detected an alert is sent), in response to a request (e.g., a user initiated request), or a continuous stream (e.g., a live video feed of a patient). [0178] As another example, a UE comprises an actuator, a motor, or a switch, related to a communication interface configured to receive wireless input from a network node via a wireless connection. In response to the received wireless input the states of the actuator, the motor, or the switch may change. For example, the UE may comprise a motor that adjusts the control surfaces or rotors of a drone in flight according to the received input or controls a robotic arm performing a medical procedure according to the received input. [0179] A UE, when in the form of an Internet of Things (IoT) device, may be a device for use in one or more application domains, these domains comprising, but not limited to, city wearable technology, extended industrial application and healthcare. Non-limiting examples of such an IoT device are devices which are or which are embedded in: a connected refrigerator or freezer, a TV, a connected lighting device, an electricity meter, a robot vacuum cleaner, a voice controlled smart speaker, a home security camera, a motion detector, a thermostat, a smoke detector, a door/window sensor, a flood/moisture sensor, an electrical door lock, a connected doorbell, an air conditioning system like a heat pump, an autonomous vehicle, a surveillance system, a weather monitoring device, a vehicle parking monitoring device, an electric vehicle charging station, a smart watch, a fitness tracker, a head-mounted display for Augmented Reality (AR) or Virtual Reality (VR), a wearable for tactile augmentation or sensory enhancement, a water sprinkler, an animal- or item-tracking device, a sensor for monitoring a plant or animal, an industrial robot, an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), and any kind of medical device, like a heart rate monitor or a remote controlled surgical robot. A UE in the form of an IoT device comprises circuitry and/or software in dependence on the intended application of the IoT device in addition to other components as described in relation to the UE 700 shown in Figure 7. [0180] As yet another specific example, in an IoT scenario, a UE may represent a machine or other device that performs monitoring and/or measurements, and transmits the results of such monitoring and/or measurements to another UE and/or a network node. The UE may in this case be an M2M device, which may in a 3GPP context be referred to as an MTC device. As one particular example, the UE may implement the 3GPP NB-IoT standard. In other scenarios, a UE may represent a vehicle, such as a car, a bus, a truck, a ship and an airplane, or other equipment that is capable of monitoring and/or reporting on its operational status or other functions associated with its operation. [0181] In practice, any number of UEs may be used together with respect to a single use case. For example, a first UE might be or be integrated in a drone and provide the drone’s speed information (obtained through a speed sensor) to a second UE that is a remote controller operating the drone. When the user makes changes from the remote controller, the first UE may adjust the throttle on the drone (e.g. by controlling an actuator) to increase or decrease the drone’s speed. The first and/or the second UE can also include more than one of the functionalities described above. For example, a UE might comprise the sensor and the actuator, and handle communication of data for both the speed sensor and the actuators. [0182] Figure 8 shows a network node 800 in accordance with some embodiments. As used herein, network node refers to equipment capable, configured, arranged and/or operable to communicate directly or indirectly with a UE and/or with other network nodes or equipment, in a telecommunication network. Examples of network nodes include, but are not limited to, access points (APs) (e.g., radio access points), base stations (BSs) (e.g., radio base stations, Node Bs, evolved Node Bs (eNBs) and NR NodeBs (gNBs)). [0183] Base stations may be categorized based on the amount of coverage they provide (or, stated differently, their transmit power level) and so, depending on the provided amount of coverage, may be referred to as femto base stations, pico base stations, micro base stations, or macro base stations. A base station may be a relay node or a relay donor node controlling a relay. A network node may also include one or more (or all) parts of a distributed radio base station such as centralized digital units and/or remote radio units (RRUs), sometimes referred to as Remote Radio Heads (RRHs). Such remote radio units may or may not be integrated with an antenna as an antenna integrated radio. Parts of a distributed radio base station may also be referred to as nodes in a distributed antenna system (DAS). [0184] Other examples of network nodes include multiple transmission point (multi-TRP) 5G access nodes, multi-standard radio (MSR) equipment such as MSR BSs, network controllers such as radio network controllers (RNCs) or base station controllers (BSCs), base transceiver stations (BTSs), transmission points, transmission nodes, multi-cell/multicast coordination entities, Operation and Maintenance (O&M) nodes, Operations Support System (OSS) nodes, Self-Organizing Network (SON) nodes, positioning nodes (e.g., Evolved Serving Mobile Location Centers (E-SMLCs)), and/or Minimization of Drive Tests (MDTs). [0185] The network node 800 includes processing circuitry 802, a memory 804, a communication interface 806, and a power source 808, and/or any other component, or any combination thereof. The network node 800 may be composed of multiple physically separate components (e.g., a NodeB component and a RNC component, or a BTS component and a BSC component, etc.), which may each have their own respective components. In certain scenarios in which the network node 800 comprises multiple separate components (e.g., BTS and BSC components), one or more of the separate components may be shared among several network nodes. For example, a single RNC may control multiple NodeBs. In such a scenario, each unique NodeB and RNC pair, may in some instances be considered a single separate network node. In some embodiments, the network node 800 may be configured to support multiple radio access technologies (RATs). In such embodiments, some components may be duplicated (e.g., separate memory 804 for different RATs) and some components may be reused (e.g., a same antenna 810 may be shared by different RATs). The network node 800 may also include multiple sets of the various illustrated components for different wireless technologies integrated into network node 800, for example GSM, WCDMA, LTE, NR, WiFi, Zigbee, Z- wave, LoRaWAN, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) or Bluetooth wireless technologies. These wireless technologies may be integrated into the same or different chip or set of chips and other components within network node 800. [0186] The processing circuitry 802 may comprise a combination of one or more of a microprocessor, controller, microcontroller, central processing unit, digital signal processor, application-specific integrated circuit, field programmable gate array, or any other suitable computing device, resource, or combination of hardware, software and/or encoded logic operable to provide, either alone or in conjunction with other network node 800 components, such as the memory 804, network node 800 functionality. For example, the processing circuitry 802 may be configured to cause the network node to perform the methods as described with reference to Figure 5. [0187] In some embodiments, the processing circuitry 802 includes a system on a chip (SOC). In some embodiments, the processing circuitry 802 includes one or more of radio frequency (RF) transceiver circuitry 812 and baseband processing circuitry 814. In some embodiments, the radio frequency (RF) transceiver circuitry 812 and the baseband processing circuitry 814 may be on separate chips (or sets of chips), boards, or units, such as radio units and digital units. In alternative embodiments, part or all of RF transceiver circuitry 812 and baseband processing circuitry 814 may be on the same chip or set of chips, boards, or units. [0188] The memory 804 may comprise any form of volatile or non-volatile computer- readable memory including, without limitation, persistent storage, solid-state memory, remotely mounted memory, magnetic media, optical media, random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), mass storage media (for example, a hard disk), removable storage media (for example, a flash drive, a Compact Disk (CD) or a Digital Video Disk (DVD)), and/or any other volatile or non-volatile, non-transitory device-readable and/or computer- executable memory devices that store information, data, and/or instructions that may be used by the processing circuitry 802. The memory 804 may store any suitable instructions, data, or information, including a computer program, software, an application including one or more of logic, rules, code, tables, and/or other instructions capable of being executed by the processing circuitry 802 and utilized by the network node 800. The memory 804 may be used to store any calculations made by the processing circuitry 802 and/or any data received via the communication interface 806. In some embodiments, the processing circuitry 802 and memory 804 is integrated. [0189] The communication interface 806 is used in wired or wireless communication of signaling and/or data between a network node, access network, and/or UE. As illustrated, the communication interface 806 comprises port(s)/terminal(s) 816 to send and receive data, for example to and from a network over a wired connection. The communication interface 806 also includes radio front-end circuitry 818 that may be coupled to, or in certain embodiments a part of, the antenna 810. Radio front-end circuitry 818 comprises filters 820 and amplifiers 822. The radio front-end circuitry 818 may be connected to an antenna 810 and processing circuitry 802. The radio front-end circuitry may be configured to condition signals communicated between antenna 810 and processing circuitry 802. The radio front-end circuitry 818 may receive digital data that is to be sent out to other network nodes or UEs via a wireless connection. The radio front-end circuitry 818 may convert the digital data into a radio signal having the appropriate channel and bandwidth parameters using a combination of filters 820 and/or amplifiers 822. The radio signal may then be transmitted via the antenna 810. Similarly, when receiving data, the antenna 810 may collect radio signals which are then converted into digital data by the radio front-end circuitry 818. The digital data may be passed to the processing circuitry 802. In other embodiments, the communication interface may comprise different components and/or different combinations of components. [0190] In certain alternative embodiments, the network node 800 does not include separate radio front-end circuitry 818, instead, the processing circuitry 802 includes radio front-end circuitry and is connected to the antenna 810. Similarly, in some embodiments, all or some of the RF transceiver circuitry 812 is part of the communication interface 806. In still other embodiments, the communication interface 806 includes one or more ports or terminals 816, the radio front-end circuitry 818, and the RF transceiver circuitry 812, as part of a radio unit (not shown), and the communication interface 806 communicates with the baseband processing circuitry 814, which is part of a digital unit (not shown). [0191] The antenna 810 may include one or more antennas, or antenna arrays, configured to send and/or receive wireless signals. The antenna 810 may be coupled to the radio front-end circuitry 818 and may be any type of antenna capable of transmitting and receiving data and/or signals wirelessly. In certain embodiments, the antenna 810 is separate from the network node 800 and connectable to the network node 800 through an interface or port. [0192] The antenna 810, communication interface 806, and/or the processing circuitry 802 may be configured to perform any receiving operations and/or certain obtaining operations described herein as being performed by the network node. Any information, data and/or signals may be received from a UE, another network node and/or any other network equipment. Similarly, the antenna 810, the communication interface 806, and/or the processing circuitry 802 may be configured to perform any transmitting operations described herein as being performed by the network node. Any information, data and/or signals may be transmitted to a UE, another network node and/or any other network equipment. [0193] The power source 808 provides power to the various components of network node 800 in a form suitable for the respective components (e.g., at a voltage and current level needed for each respective component). The power source 808 may further comprise, or be coupled to, power management circuitry to supply the components of the network node 800 with power for performing the functionality described herein. For example, the network node 800 may be connectable to an external power source (e.g., the power grid, an electricity outlet) via an input circuitry or interface such as an electrical cable, whereby the external power source supplies power to power circuitry of the power source 808. As a further example, the power source 808 may comprise a source of power in the form of a battery or battery pack which is connected to, or integrated in, power circuitry. The battery may provide backup power should the external power source fail. [0194] Embodiments of the network node 800 may include additional components beyond those shown in Figure 8 for providing certain aspects of the network node’s functionality, including any of the functionality described herein and/or any functionality necessary to support the subject matter described herein. For example, the network node 800 may include user interface equipment to allow input of information into the network node 800 and to allow output of information from the network node 800. This may allow a user to perform diagnostic, maintenance, repair, and other administrative functions for the network node 800. [0195] Figure 9 is a block diagram of a host 900, which may be an embodiment of the host 616 of Figure 6, in accordance with various aspects described herein. As used herein, the host 900 may be or comprise various combinations hardware and/or software, including a standalone server, a blade server, a cloud-implemented server, a distributed server, a virtual machine, container, or processing resources in a server farm. The host 900 may provide one or more services to one or more UEs. [0196] The host 900 includes processing circuitry 902 that is operatively coupled via a bus 904 to an input/output interface 906, a network interface 908, a power source 910, and a memory 912. Other components may be included in other embodiments. Features of these components may be substantially similar to those described with respect to the devices of previous figures, such as Figures 7 and 8, such that the descriptions thereof are generally applicable to the corresponding components of host 900. [0197] The memory 912 may include one or more computer programs including one or more host application programs 914 and data 916, which may include user data, e.g., data generated by a UE for the host 900 or data generated by the host 900 for a UE. Embodiments of the host 900 may utilize only a subset or all of the components shown. The host application programs 914 may be implemented in a container-based architecture and may provide support for video codecs (e.g., Versatile Video Coding (VVC), High Efficiency Video Coding (HEVC), Advanced Video Coding (AVC), MPEG, VP9) and audio codecs (e.g., FLAC, Advanced Audio Coding (AAC), MPEG, G.711), including transcoding for multiple different classes, types, or implementations of UEs (e.g., handsets, desktop computers, wearable display systems, heads-up display systems). The host application programs 914 may also provide for user authentication and licensing checks and may periodically report health, routes, and content availability to a central node, such as a device in or on the edge of a core network. Accordingly, the host 900 may select and/or indicate a different host for over-the-top services for a UE. The host application programs 914 may support various protocols, such as the HTTP Live Streaming (HLS) protocol, Real-Time Messaging Protocol (RTMP), Real-Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP), Dynamic Adaptive Streaming over HTTP (MPEG-DASH), etc. [0198] Figure 10 is a block diagram illustrating a virtualization environment 1000 in which functions implemented by some embodiments may be virtualized. In the present context, virtualizing means creating virtual versions of apparatuses or devices which may include virtualizing hardware platforms, storage devices and networking resources. As used herein, virtualization can be applied to any device described herein, or components thereof, and relates to an implementation in which at least a portion of the functionality is implemented as one or more virtual components. Some or all of the functions described herein may be implemented as virtual components executed by one or more virtual machines (VMs) implemented in one or more virtual environments 1000 hosted by one or more of hardware nodes, such as a hardware computing device that operates as a network node, UE, core network node, or host. Further, in embodiments in which the virtual node does not require radio connectivity (e.g., a core network node or host), then the node may be entirely virtualized. [0199] Applications 1002 (which may alternatively be called software instances, virtual appliances, network functions, virtual nodes, virtual network functions, etc.) are run in the virtualization environment Q400 to implement some of the features, functions, and/or benefits of some of the embodiments disclosed herein. [0200] Hardware 1004 includes processing circuitry, memory that stores software and/or instructions executable by hardware processing circuitry, and/or other hardware devices as described herein, such as a network interface, input/output interface, and so forth. Software may be executed by the processing circuitry to instantiate one or more virtualization layers 1006 (also referred to as hypervisors or virtual machine monitors (VMMs)), provide VMs 1008a and 1008b (one or more of which may be generally referred to as VMs 1008), and/or perform any of the functions, features and/or benefits described in relation with some embodiments described herein. The virtualization layer 1006 may present a virtual operating platform that appears like networking hardware to the VMs 1008. [0201] The VMs 1008 comprise virtual processing, virtual memory, virtual networking or interface and virtual storage, and may be run by a corresponding virtualization layer 1006. Different embodiments of the instance of a virtual appliance 1002 may be implemented on one or more of VMs 1008, and the implementations may be made in different ways. Virtualization of the hardware is in some contexts referred to as network function virtualization (NFV). NFV may be used to consolidate many network equipment types onto industry standard high volume server hardware, physical switches, and physical storage, which can be located in data centers, and customer premise equipment. [0202] In the context of NFV, a VM 1008 may be a software implementation of a physical machine that runs programs as if they were executing on a physical, non-virtualized machine. Each of the VMs 1008, and that part of hardware 1004 that executes that VM, be it hardware dedicated to that VM and/or hardware shared by that VM with others of the VMs, forms separate virtual network elements. Still in the context of NFV, a virtual network function is responsible for handling specific network functions that run in one or more VMs 1008 on top of the hardware 1004 and corresponds to the application 1002. [0203] Hardware 1004 may be implemented in a standalone network node with generic or specific components. Hardware 1004 may implement some functions via virtualization. Alternatively, hardware 1004 may be part of a larger cluster of hardware (e.g. such as in a data center or CPE) where many hardware nodes work together and are managed via management and orchestration 1010, which, among others, oversees lifecycle management of applications 1002. In some embodiments, hardware 1004 is coupled to one or more radio units that each include one or more transmitters and one or more receivers that may be coupled to one or more antennas. Radio units may communicate directly with other hardware nodes via one or more appropriate network interfaces and may be used in combination with the virtual components to provide a virtual node with radio capabilities, such as a radio access node or a base station. In some embodiments, some signaling can be provided with the use of a control system 1012 which may alternatively be used for communication between hardware nodes and radio units. [0204] Figure 11 shows a communication diagram of a host 1102 communicating via a network node 1104 with a UE 1106 over a partially wireless connection in accordance with some embodiments. Example implementations, in accordance with various embodiments, of the UE (such as a UE 612a of Figure 6 and/or UE 700 of Figure 7), network node (such as network node 610a of Figure 6 and/or network node 800 of Figure 8), and host (such as host 616 of Figure 6 and/or host 900 of Figure 9) discussed in the preceding paragraphs will now be described with reference to Figure 11. [0205] Like host 900, embodiments of host 1102 include hardware, such as a communication interface, processing circuitry, and memory. The host 1102 also includes software, which is stored in or accessible by the host 1102 and executable by the processing circuitry. The software includes a host application that may be operable to provide a service to a remote user, such as the UE 1106 connecting via an over-the-top (OTT) connection 1150 extending between the UE 1106 and host 1102. In providing the service to the remote user, a host application may provide user data which is transmitted using the OTT connection 1150. [0206] The network node 1104 includes hardware enabling it to communicate with the host 1102 and UE 1106. The connection 1160 may be direct or pass through a core network (like core network 606 of Figure 6) and/or one or more other intermediate networks, such as one or more public, private, or hosted networks. For example, an intermediate network may be a backbone network or the Internet. [0207] The UE 1106 includes hardware and software, which is stored in or accessible by UE 1106 and executable by the UE’s processing circuitry. The software includes a client application, such as a web browser or operator-specific “app” that may be operable to provide a service to a human or non-human user via UE 1106 with the support of the host 1102. In the host 1102, an executing host application may communicate with the executing client application via the OTT connection 1150 terminating at the UE 1106 and host 1102. In providing the service to the user, the UE's client application may receive request data from the host's host application and provide user data in response to the request data. The OTT connection 1150 may transfer both the request data and the user data. The UE's client application may interact with the user to generate the user data that it provides to the host application through the OTT connection 1150. [0208] The OTT connection 1150 may extend via a connection 1160 between the host 1102 and the network node 1104 and via a wireless connection 1170 between the network node 1104 and the UE 1106 to provide the connection between the host 1102 and the UE 1106. The connection 1160 and wireless connection 1170, over which the OTT connection 1150 may be provided, have been drawn abstractly to illustrate the communication between the host 1102 and the UE 1106 via the network node 1104, without explicit reference to any intermediary devices and the precise routing of messages via these devices. [0209] As an example of transmitting data via the OTT connection 1150, in step 1108, the host 1102 provides user data, which may be performed by executing a host application. In some embodiments, the user data is associated with a particular human user interacting with the UE 1106. In other embodiments, the user data is associated with a UE 1106 that shares data with the host 1102 without explicit human interaction. In step 1110, the host 1102 initiates a transmission carrying the user data towards the UE 1106. The host 1102 may initiate the transmission responsive to a request transmitted by the UE 1106. The request may be caused by human interaction with the UE 1106 or by operation of the client application executing on the UE 1106. The transmission may pass via the network node 1104, in accordance with the teachings of the embodiments described throughout this disclosure. Accordingly, in step 1112, the network node 1104 transmits to the UE 1106 the user data that was carried in the transmission that the host 1102 initiated, in accordance with the teachings of the embodiments described throughout this disclosure. In step 1114, the UE 1106 receives the user data carried in the transmission, which may be performed by a client application executed on the UE 1106 associated with the host application executed by the host 1102. [0210] In some examples, the UE 1106 executes a client application which provides user data to the host 1102. The user data may be provided in reaction or response to the data received from the host 1102. Accordingly, in step 1116, the UE 1106 may provide user data, which may be performed by executing the client application. In providing the user data, the client application may further consider user input received from the user via an input/output interface of the UE 1106. Regardless of the specific manner in which the user data was provided, the UE 1106 initiates, in step 1118, transmission of the user data towards the host 1102 via the network node 1104. In step 1120, in accordance with the teachings of the embodiments described throughout this disclosure, the network node 1104 receives user data from the UE 1106 and initiates transmission of the received user data towards the host 1102. In step 1122, the host 1102 receives the user data carried in the transmission initiated by the UE 1106. [0211] One or more of the various embodiments improve the performance of OTT services provided to the UE 1106 using the OTT connection 1150, in which the wireless connection 1170 forms the last segment. More precisely, the teachings of these embodiments may improve the reporting of poor end-user experience, enabling the RAN to take action to improve that experience and thereby provide benefits such as reduced user waiting time, lower latency, and/or improved content resolution. [0212] In an example scenario, factory status information may be collected and analyzed by the host 1102. As another example, the host 1102 may process audio and video data which may have been retrieved from a UE for use in creating maps. As another example, the host 1102 may collect and analyze real-time data to assist in controlling vehicle congestion (e.g., controlling traffic lights). As another example, the host 1102 may store surveillance video uploaded by a UE. As another example, the host 1102 may store or control access to media content such as video, audio, VR or AR which it can broadcast, multicast or unicast to UEs. As other examples, the host 1102 may be used for energy pricing, remote control of non-time critical electrical load to balance power generation needs, location services, presentation services (such as compiling diagrams etc. from data collected from remote devices), or any other function of collecting, retrieving, storing, analyzing and/or transmitting data. [0213] In some examples, a measurement procedure may be provided for the purpose of monitoring data rate, latency and other factors on which the one or more embodiments improve. There may further be an optional network functionality for reconfiguring the OTT connection 1150 between the host 1102 and UE 1106, in response to variations in the measurement results. The measurement procedure and/or the network functionality for reconfiguring the OTT connection may be implemented in software and hardware of the host 1102 and/or UE 1106. In some embodiments, sensors (not shown) may be deployed in or in association with other devices through which the OTT connection 1150 passes; the sensors may participate in the measurement procedure by supplying values of the monitored quantities exemplified above, or supplying values of other physical quantities from which software may compute or estimate the monitored quantities. The reconfiguring of the OTT connection 1150 may include message format, retransmission settings, preferred routing etc.; the reconfiguring need not directly alter the operation of the network node 1104. Such procedures and functionalities may be known and practiced in the art. In certain embodiments, measurements may involve proprietary UE signaling that facilitates measurements of throughput, propagation times, latency and the like, by the host 1102. The measurements may be implemented in that software causes messages to be transmitted, in particular empty or ‘dummy’ messages, using the OTT connection 1150 while monitoring propagation times, errors, etc. [0214] Although the computing devices described herein (e.g., UEs, network nodes, hosts) may include the illustrated combination of hardware components, other embodiments may comprise computing devices with different combinations of components. It is to be understood that these computing devices may comprise any suitable combination of hardware and/or software needed to perform the tasks, features, functions and methods disclosed herein. Determining, calculating, obtaining or similar operations described herein may be performed by processing circuitry, which may process information by, for example, converting the obtained information into other information, comparing the obtained information or converted information to information stored in the network node, and/or performing one or more operations based on the obtained information or converted information, and as a result of said processing making a determination. Moreover, while components are depicted as single boxes located within a larger box, or nested within multiple boxes, in practice, computing devices may comprise multiple different physical components that make up a single illustrated component, and functionality may be partitioned between separate components. For example, a communication interface may be configured to include any of the components described herein, and/or the functionality of the components may be partitioned between the processing circuitry and the communication interface. In another example, non-computationally intensive functions of any of such components may be implemented in software or firmware and computationally intensive functions may be implemented in hardware. [0215] In certain embodiments, some or all of the functionality described herein may be provided by processing circuitry executing instructions stored on in memory, which in certain embodiments may be a computer program product in the form of a non-transitory computer- readable storage medium. In alternative embodiments, some or all of the functionality may be provided by the processing circuitry without executing instructions stored on a separate or discrete device-readable storage medium, such as in a hard-wired manner. In any of those particular embodiments, whether executing instructions stored on a non-transitory computer- readable storage medium or not, the processing circuitry can be configured to perform the described functionality. The benefits provided by such functionality are not limited to the processing circuitry alone or to other components of the computing device, but are enjoyed by the computing device as a whole, and/or by end users and a wireless network generally. [0216] For the avoidance of doubt, the following numbered paragraphs set out embodiments of the disclosure: Group A Embodiments 1. A method performed by a user equipment for reporting one or more quality-of- experience (QoE) metrics, the method comprising: obtaining a configuration for measuring and reporting one or more QoE metrics to a radio access network (RAN) node; performing measurements in accordance with the configuration, to determine values for the one or more QoE metrics; and transmitting a QoE report to the RAN node comprising the values for the one or more QoE metrics, the QoE report being configured to be decoded by the RAN node. 2. The method of embodiment 1, wherein the configuration comprises an indication of one or more services for which QoE metrics are to be measured and reported. 3. The method of embodiment 1 or 2, wherein values for the one or more QoE metrics are determined by the user equipment using only information from the Application Layer of the user equipment. 4. The method of embodiment 1 or 2, wherein values for the one or more QoE metrics are derived by the user equipment using information from the Application Layer of the user equipment and Access Stratum information. 5. The method of embodiment 4, wherein the Access Stratum information comprises one or more radio measurements, one or more radio events, and/or one or more radio configurations. 6. The method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the configuration comprises one or more conditions, the fulfilment of which causes the user equipment to perform the measurements or to transmit the QoE report. 7. The method according to embodiment 6, wherein the one or more conditions relate to one or more of: radio measurements by the user equipment; events concerning the Access Stratum (e.g., mobility events such as handover, radio link failure). 8. The method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the configuration comprises an instruction as to when the user equipment should transmit QoE reports to the RAN node while a session for which QoE reports are configured is ongoing. 9. The method of embodiment 8, wherein one or more of the following apply: the user equipment is instructed to send QoE reports periodically while the session is ongoing; the user equipment is instructed to send QoE reports at a certain time or during a certain time interval; the user equipment is instructed to send QoE reports upon fulfilment of one or more reporting conditions. 10. The method of embodiment 9, wherein the one or more reporting conditions comprise one or more of: a condition relating to an application buffer level at the user equipment for the session; a condition relating to playout delay for media startup; a condition relating to initial playout delay; a condition relating to stalling; a condition relating to an amount of data received by the user equipment from an application server for the session; a condition relating to an amount of data played out by the user equipment for the session; a condition relating to an amount of data received by the user equipment from an application server for the session; a condition relating to an amount of media content corresponding to a playout time period received by the user equipment from an application server for the session; a condition relating to an amount of media content corresponding to a playout time period has been played out by the user equipment; a condition relating to a fraction of the total media content for the session has been received from the application server, or played out by the user equipment; a condition relating to a fraction of the total expected session duration. 11. The method according to any preceding embodiment, wherein the configuration is at least partially obtained via signalling from the RAN node. 12. The method according to any preceding embodiment, wherein the configuration is at least partially preconfigured in the user equipment. 13. The method of any of the previous embodiments, further comprising: providing user data; and forwarding the user data to a host via the transmission to the network node. Group B Embodiments 14. A method performed by a network node for obtaining one or more quality-of- experience (QoE) metrics, the method comprising: transmitting a configuration message to a user equipment, the configuration message comprising a configuration for measuring and reporting one or more QoE metrics; receiving a QoE report from the user equipment comprising values for the one or more QoE metrics; and decoding the QoE report. 15. The method of embodiment 14, wherein the configuration comprises an indication of one or more services for which QoE metrics are to be measured and reported. 16. The method of embodiment 14 or 15, wherein values for the one or more QoE metrics are determined by the user equipment using only information from the Application Layer of the user equipment. 17. The method of embodiment 14 or 15, wherein values for the one or more QoE metrics are derived by the user equipment using information from the Application Layer of the user equipment and Access Stratum information. 18. The method of embodiment 17, wherein the Access Stratum information comprises one or more radio measurements, one or more radio events, and/or one or more radio configurations. 19. The method of any of embodiments 14 to 18, wherein the configuration comprises one or more conditions, the fulfilment of which causes the user equipment to perform the measurements or to transmit the QoE report. 20. The method according to embodiment 19, wherein the one or more conditions relate to one or more of: radio measurements by the user equipment; events concerning the Access Stratum (e.g., mobility events such as handover, radio link failure). 21. The method of any of embodiments 14 to 20, wherein the configuration comprises an instruction as to when the user equipment should transmit QoE reports to the RAN node while a session for which QoE reports are configured is ongoing. 22. The method of embodiment 21, wherein one or more of the following apply: the user equipment is instructed to send QoE reports periodically while the session is ongoing; the user equipment is instructed to send QoE reports at a certain time or during a certain time interval; the user equipment is instructed to send QoE reports upon fulfilment of one or more reporting conditions. 23. The method of embodiment 22, wherein the one or more reporting conditions comprise one or more of: a condition relating to an application buffer level at the user equipment for the session; a condition relating to playout delay for media startup; a condition relating to initial playout delay; a condition relating to stalling; a condition relating to an amount of data received by the user equipment from an application server for the session; a condition relating to an amount of data played out by the user equipment for the session; a condition relating to an amount of data received by the user equipment from an application server for the session; a condition relating to an amount of media content corresponding to a playout time period received by the user equipment from an application server for the session; a condition relating to an amount of media content corresponding to a playout time period has been played out by the user equipment; a condition relating to a fraction of the total media content for the session has been received from the application server, or played out by the user equipment; a condition relating to a fraction of the total expected session duration. 24. The method of any of the previous embodiments, further comprising: obtaining user data; and forwarding the user data to a host or a user equipment. Group C Embodiments 25. A user equipment, comprising: processing circuitry configured to cause the user equipment to perform any of the steps of any of the Group A embodiments; and power supply circuitry configured to supply power to the processing circuitry. 26. A network node, the network node comprising: processing circuitry configured to cause the network node to perform any of the steps of any of the Group B embodiments; power supply circuitry configured to supply power to the processing circuitry. 27. A user equipment (UE), the UE comprising: an antenna configured to send and receive wireless signals; radio front-end circuitry connected to the antenna and to processing circuitry, and configured to condition signals communicated between the antenna and the processing circuitry; the processing circuitry being configured to perform any of the steps of any of the Group A embodiments; an input interface connected to the processing circuitry and configured to allow input of information into the UE to be processed by the processing circuitry; an output interface connected to the processing circuitry and configured to output information from the UE that has been processed by the processing circuitry; and a battery connected to the processing circuitry and configured to supply power to the UE. 28. A host configured to operate in a communication system to provide an over-the-top (OTT) service, the host comprising: processing circuitry configured to provide user data; and a network interface configured to initiate transmission of the user data to a cellular network for transmission to a user equipment (UE), wherein the UE comprises a communication interface and processing circuitry, the communication interface and processing circuitry of the UE being configured to perform any of the steps of any of the Group A embodiments to receive the user data from the host. 29. The host of the previous embodiment, wherein the cellular network further includes a network node configured to communicate with the UE to transmit the user data to the UE from the host. 30. The host of the previous 2 embodiments, wherein: the processing circuitry of the host is configured to execute a host application, thereby providing the user data; and the host application is configured to interact with a client application executing on the UE, the client application being associated with the host application. 31. A method implemented by a host operating in a communication system that further includes a network node and a user equipment (UE), the method comprising: providing user data for the UE; and initiating a transmission carrying the user data to the UE via a cellular network comprising the network node, wherein the UE performs any of the operations of any of the Group A embodiments to receive the user data from the host. 32. The method of the previous embodiment, further comprising: at the host, executing a host application associated with a client application executing on the UE to receive the user data from the UE. 33. The method of the previous embodiment, further comprising: at the host, transmitting input data to the client application executing on the UE, the input data being provided by executing the host application, wherein the user data is provided by the client application in response to the input data from the host application. 34. A host configured to operate in a communication system to provide an over-the-top (OTT) service, the host comprising: processing circuitry configured to provide user data; and a network interface configured to initiate transmission of the user data to a cellular network for transmission to a user equipment (UE), wherein the UE comprises a communication interface and processing circuitry, the communication interface and processing circuitry of the UE being configured to perform any of the steps of any of the Group A embodiments to transmit the user data to the host. 35. The host of the previous embodiment, wherein the cellular network further includes a network node configured to communicate with the UE to transmit the user data from the UE to the host. 36. The host of the previous 2 embodiments, wherein: the processing circuitry of the host is configured to execute a host application, thereby providing the user data; and the host application is configured to interact with a client application executing on the UE, the client application being associated with the host application. 37. A method implemented by a host configured to operate in a communication system that further includes a network node and a user equipment (UE), the method comprising: at the host, receiving user data transmitted to the host via the network node by the UE, wherein the UE performs any of the steps of any of the Group A embodiments to transmit the user data to the host. 38. The method of the previous embodiment, further comprising: at the host, executing a host application associated with a client application executing on the UE to receive the user data from the UE. 39. The method of the previous embodiment, further comprising: at the host, transmitting input data to the client application executing on the UE, the input data being provided by executing the host application, wherein the user data is provided by the client application in response to the input data from the host application. 40. A host configured to operate in a communication system to provide an over-the-top (OTT) service, the host comprising: processing circuitry configured to provide user data; and a network interface configured to initiate transmission of the user data to a network node in a cellular network for transmission to a user equipment (UE), the network node having a communication interface and processing circuitry, the processing circuitry of the network node configured to perform any of the operations of any of the Group B embodiments to transmit the user data from the host to the UE. 41. The host of the previous embodiment, wherein: the processing circuitry of the host is configured to execute a host application that provides the user data; and the UE comprises processing circuitry configured to execute a client application associated with the host application to receive the transmission of user data from the host. 42. A method implemented in a host configured to operate in a communication system that further includes a network node and a user equipment (UE), the method comprising: providing user data for the UE; and initiating a transmission carrying the user data to the UE via a cellular network comprising the network node, wherein the network node performs any of the operations of any of the Group B embodiments to transmit the user data from the host to the UE. 43. The method of the previous embodiment, further comprising, at the network node, transmitting the user data provided by the host for the UE. 44. The method of any of the previous 2 embodiments, wherein the user data is provided at the host by executing a host application that interacts with a client application executing on the UE, the client application being associated with the host application. 45. A communication system configured to provide an over-the-top service, the communication system comprising: a host comprising: processing circuitry configured to provide user data for a user equipment (UE), the user data being associated with the over-the-top service; and a network interface configured to initiate transmission of the user data toward a cellular network node for transmission to the UE, the network node having a communication interface and processing circuitry, the processing circuitry of the network node configured to perform any of the operations of any of the Group B embodiments to transmit the user data from the host to the UE. 46. The communication system of the previous embodiment, further comprising: the network node; and/or the user equipment. 47. A host configured to operate in a communication system to provide an over-the-top (OTT) service, the host comprising: processing circuitry configured to initiate receipt of user data; and a network interface configured to receive the user data from a network node in a cellular network, the network node having a communication interface and processing circuitry, the processing circuitry of the network node configured to perform any of the operations of any of the Group B embodiments to receive the user data from a user equipment (UE) for the host. 48. The host of the previous 2 embodiments, wherein: the processing circuitry of the host is configured to execute a host application, thereby providing the user data; and the host application is configured to interact with a client application executing on the UE, the client application being associated with the host application. 49. The host of the any of the previous 2 embodiments, wherein the initiating receipt of the user data comprises requesting the user data. 50. A method implemented by a host configured to operate in a communication system that further includes a network node and a user equipment (UE), the method comprising: at the host, initiating receipt of user data from the UE, the user data originating from a transmission which the network node has received from the UE, wherein the network node performs any of the steps of any of the Group B embodiments to receive the user data from the UE for the host. 51. The method of the previous embodiment, further comprising at the network node, transmitting the received user data to the host.