FIELD

The present disclosure relates to surfaces with nanofibres affixed thereto.

BACKGROUND

Photocatalysts are substances which can modify the rate of a chemical reaction using energy from light irradiation. Photocatalysts, such as titanium dioxide (T1O ₂ ), have been widely used in various environmental and energy applications, including self-cleaning surfaces, air and water purification systems, sterilization, hydrogen evolution, and photoelectrochemical conversion.

Photocatalysts’ performance can benefit greatly when they take form of nanostructures that increase the surface area for adsorption of gas molecules, harvesting of light, and fostering of the chemical reaction of the super-anions (also known as superoxides or superoxide anions, O ₂ ) and hydroxyl radicals (OH-) with the gas molecules adsorbed on the photocatalyst surface. The superanions and hydroxyl radicals are generated from the photogenerated electrons and the left-behind positive holes with the oxygen and water moisture in air, respectively. Similar reactions can be also found in water as well. For example, photocatalyst, T1O ₂ is commercially available as a T1O ₂ P25 nanoparticle with average primary particle size 21 ±5 nm, although larger particles of T1O ₂ , such as 200nm, have also been commonly used.

For the purpose of water purification, these heterogeneous nanoparticles are generally mixed with the water to be purified. After the organic pollutants in water are broken down by the photochemical reaction, the heterogeneous catalysts are separated from the aqueous solution and may be recycled. However, loss of catalyst during separation and recycling are inevitable. Further loss may also occur in washing the catalyst, which is required to remove any unwanted organic substance absorbed on the surface of the catalyst that might impair its function. The loss of nanoparticles in the water may cause problems if the water is to be filtered and purified for reuse. Even if the wastewater is to be disposed of, it is undesirable to dispose wastewater with nanoparticles due to impact of nanomaterials on the environment.

For air purification, T1O ₂ , nanoparticles may be in form of a liquid suspension which is then sprayed onto walls of a room or space. After the liquid is evaporated, the T1O ₂ nanoparticles on the walls harvest the light in the room and combine with oxygen or water moisture in air to form respectively super-anions, or hydroxyl radicals. These super-anions and hydroxyl radicals can oxidize harmful gas molecules adsorbed onto the surface of the T1O ₂ particles. However, there is a concern that the T1O2 nanoparticles may be detached and get inhaled by occupants in the rooms, which is equally undesirable as inhaling air with harmful gases.

Another constraint with T1O2 nanoparticles is that they can typically only harvest ultraviolet (UV) light, which a person skilled in the art would appreciate is only 5% of the light spectrum. As such, there is a need to provide photocatalyst that at least alleviates or ameliorates one or more of the above problems.

SUMMARY

Features and advantages of the disclosure will be set forth in the description which follows, and in part will be obvious from the description, or can be learned by practice of the herein disclosed principles. The features and advantages of the disclosure can be realized and obtained by means of the instruments and combinations specified in the appended claims.

In accordance with a first aspect of the present disclosure, there is provided a surface comprising a photocatalyst affixed thereupon via an adhesive layer.

Preferably, the photocatalyst comprises Ti02, Ti02-Zn0, Ti02-Bi203, Ti02-Cu0, Ti02-Cu0-Gr, Ti02-Zn0-Bi203 or Ti02-Zn0-Bi203-Gr.

Advantageously, the photocatalyst is Ti02-Zn0, Ti02-Bi203, Ti02-Cu0, Ti02-Cu0-Gr, Ti02- Zn0-Bi203 or Ti02-Zn0-Bi203-Gr nanofiber or nanohair.

More advantageously, the photocatalyst is Ti02-Zn0-Bi203-Gr nanofiber or truncated nanofiber (nanohair). The oil-based paint/ non- aqueous coating may comprise a white pigment, and the white pigment may be calcium carbonate, kaolin or titanium dioxide.

Preferably, the adhesive layer is permeable to light and gas. More preferably, the adhesive layer is permeable to water vapor.

The photocatalyst may also be affixed via thermal treatment of an adhesive layer having the photocatalyst thereupon.

Optionally, the adhesive layer is a coating selected from the group comprising a polymer dissolved in solvent including volatile organic compounds, acrylic compounds dissolved in one or more solvents, a porous organic matrix comprising a polymer; and an inorganic matrix comprising a porous alloy. According to another aspect of the disclosure there is provided a method of affixing a photocatalyst to a surface comprising applying a suspension of the photocatalyst in an adhesive layer to the surface.

Optionally, the adhesive layer comprises an oil-based paint containing a white pigment, which may be calcium carbonate, kaolin or titanium dioxide. Alternatively, the adhesive layer may comprise non-white-pigment. Still further the adhesive layer may be a coating selected from the group comprising a polymer dissolved in solvent including volatile organic compounds, acrylic compounds dissolved in one or more solvents, a porous organic matrix comprising a polymer; and an inorganic matrix comprising a porous alloy.

In yet a further aspect of the disclosure there is provided a purifier comprising a photocatalyst affixed on a surface via an adhesive layer wherein the adhesive layer comprises Ti02.

Preferably, the adhesive layer has a composition substantially the same as the photocatalyst.

Advantageously, the adhesive layer has a composition at least 99%, 98%, 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20% or 10% similar with the photocatalyst.

More advantageously, the adhesive layer is permeable to light, gas and water vapor.

More advantageously, the adhesive layer may have antibacterial properties itself such as an antibacterial paint or coating.

In a further aspect of the disclosure there is provided an air purifier system comprising an inlet in fluid communication with an outlet, and a purifier disposed on a fluid path from the inlet to the outlet, wherein the purifier comprising a photocatalyst affixed on a surface via an adhesive layer and wherein the adhesive layer comprises Ti02. The photocatalyst may be affixed proximal to the intake surface or output surface of the fluid path or on any surface along the fluid path.

In a further aspect there is provided a disinfecting surface comprising a photocatalyst affixed thereupon via an adhesive layer. Optionally the adhesive layer is a coating selected from the group comprising a polymer dissolved in solvent including volatile organic compounds, acrylic compounds dissolved in one or more solvents, a porous organic matrix comprising a polymer; and an inorganic matrix comprising a porous alloy.

Alternatively, the adhesive layer may comprise an oil based paint. The photocatalyst may be Ti02-ZnO, Ti02-Bi203, Ti02-CuO, Ti02-CuO-Gr, Ti02-Zn0-Bi203 or Ti02-Zn0-Bi203-Gr nanofiber or nanohair. The oil-based paint may comprise a white pigment which may be selected from the group comprising calcium carbonate, kaolin or titanium dioxide. Still further the oil based paint may contain a non-white pigment.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

In order to describe the manner in which the above-recited and other advantages and features of the disclosure can be obtained, a more particular description of the principles briefly described above will be rendered by reference to specific embodiments thereof which are illustrated in the appended drawings. Understanding that these drawings depict only exemplary embodiments of the disclosure and are not therefore to be considered to be limiting of its scope, the principles herein are described and explained with additional specificity and detail through the use of the accompanying drawings.

Preferred embodiments of the present invention will be explained in further detail below by way of examples and with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which:-

Figure 1 shows a schematic illustration of a first aspect of the present disclosure wherein a coating of nanofibers or nanohairs are attached onto grains of a porous media via an adhesive layer using a sol-gel process.

Figure 2 shows a schematic flowchart of steps for coating of TiCb-ZnO-BhOs (TZB) nanohairs on grains (usually several millimeters to several centimeters in size) of a porous media of Figure 1.

Figure 3a shows an exemplary coating of nanofibers on grains located at the top surface of the porous media according to the method of Figures 1 and 2.

Figure 3b shows an exemplary coating of nanohairs according to the method of Figures 1 and 2, wherein the coating penetrates throughout the grains across the entire depth of the porous media.

Figure 4 shows an exemplary filtering column comprising the nanohair-coated grains of Figure 3b.

Figure 5a shows an exemplary filter system comprising a stacked membrane purifier having the nanofiber-coated grains of Figure 3a or 3b at the bottom of the membrane stack.

Figure 5b shows another exemplary filter system comprising a stacked membrane purifier having the nanofiber-coated grains of Figure 3a or 3b at the top of the membrane stack for reduction of organic foulant build up at the membrane surface. Figure 6 shows a schematic illustration of a second aspect of the present disclosure wherein nanofibers or nanohairs dispersed in a paint suspension are applied onto a solid surface.

Figure 7 shows a schematic view of an exemplary catalytic surface prepared according to the method of Figure 6. Figure 8 shows the proposed mechanism for decomposition of pollutants by the catalytic surface of Figures 6 and 7.

Figure 9 shows an exemplary 7cm X 7cm glass coated with Ti0 ₂ -Zn0-Bi ₂ 0 ₃ -Graphene (TZBG) using the method of Figure 6.

Figures 10a and 10b show respectively the experimental setup for photo-catalytic oxidation using (a) photocatalyst affixed to a surface and (b) photocatalyst suspended in solution

Figure 11 shows the photo-oxidation of methylene blue in water by (a) the TZBG coated glass of Figure 9 (with the experimental setup of Figure 10a) and (b) TZBG suspended in solution (with the experimental setup of Figure 10b).

Figure 12a shows the photo-oxidation of methylene blue in water by titanium dioxide P25 nanoparticle, TZB nanofibers and TZBG nanofibers affixed onto glass surface using the sol-gel process of Figures 1 and 2.

Figure 12b shows the photo-oxidation of methylene blue in water by titanium dioxide P25 nanoparticle, TZB nanofibers and TZBG nanofibers painted onto glass surface using the paint method of Figure 6. Figure 13 shows the experimental setup for the photo-oxidation of pollutants in air which shows air of given flow rate, containing harmful test gas of known concentration, is sent to the reactor. The test gas concentration is monitored downstream of the reactor by the analyser to determine the conversion efficiency.

Figure 14a shows the photo-oxidation of formaldehyde in air by 90 milligrams of free photocatalyst (i.e. not attached to any surface) - namely titanium dioxide P25 nanoparticle, TZB nanofibers and TZBG nanofibers.

Figure 14b shows the photo-oxidation of formaldehyde in air by 10 milligrams of titanium dioxide P25 nanoparticle, TZB nanofibers and TZBG nanofibers painted onto glass surface. Figure 15a shows the photo-oxidation of nitrogen monoxide in air by titanium dioxide P25 nanoparticle, TZB nanofibers and TZBG nanofibers painted onto glass surface, compared to a control painted glass surface without any nano-photocatalyst.

Figure 15b shows photo-oxidation of nitrogren monoxide in air by titanium dioxide P25 nanoparticle, TZB nanofibers and TZBG nanofibers painted onto glass surface, comparing the performance for paint comprising a white pigment and a non-white pigment, in this case a blue pigment.

Figure 16 shows the photo-catalytic activities of 4 equal sections (or quadrants) of the TZBG coated glass of Figure 9, with each section having 2.5 milligrams of TZBG nanofibers. Figure 17a shows a prototype air purifier showing 8 tiles as depicted in Figure 9 coated with photocatalyst lining the base of the photocatalytic region.

Figure 17b shows the exemplary prototype air purifier of Figure 17a including a 100w LED light placed thereon. The sides of the air purifier is lined with reflective aluminium foil.

Figure 18a shows the ratio of formaldehyde concentration of the air purifier of Figure 17a normalized to initial concentrations treating an enclosed volume of 150 litres of air with initial concentration of several hundred ppb of formaldehyde gas.

Figure 18b shows the conversion efficiency of formaldehyde by the air purifier of Figure 17a for various initial concentrations.

Figure 19 shows an exemplary experimental setup for determining efficacy of titanium dioxide P25 nanoparticle, TZB nanofibers and TZBG nanofibers painted onto glass plate surface, compared to a control painted glass plate surface without any nanophotocatalyst.

Figure 20 shows a schematic representation of the two bacterial species, E. coli 530 and S. Aureus 5540, each with Ti02-Zn0-Bi203-Gr nanofiber or nanohair attached to or engaged with the surfaces of the bacterium. Figure 21 shows a schematic representation of the various mechanisms of action postulated for disinfection of bacteria by TZBG nanofibers affixed to a disinfecting surface via an adhesive layer comprising an oil based paint. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

Various embodiments of the disclosure are discussed in detail below. While specific implementations are discussed, it should be understood that this is for illustration purposes only. A person skilled in the relevant art will recognize that other components and configurations may be used without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure.

Referring to Figure 1 , there is shown a first aspect of the present disclosure in which nanofibers 16 or truncated nanofibres 18 are coated on the surfaces of a porous media 12 via an adhesive layer 14 using a sol-gel method. The adhesive layer 14 is selected from semiconductor materials (e.g. Ti02 particles) having a composition similar to that of the nanofibers or nanohair photocatalyst. The adhesive layer 14 is applied to surface of the porous media 12 via say a tool such as a doctor’s knife in an ultrathin layer. Then, nanofibres 16 and/or nanohairs 18 are applied to the adhesive layer 14. The resulting structure is calcinated optimally at 450 degree Celsius. Upon calcination the nanofibres 16 and nanohairs 18 are fused into the adhesive layer 14 which is attached to the surface of the porous media 12. The porous media 12 may be formed by grains of similar size or different sizes filling a container that has transparent wall allowing light to transmit through activating the contained photocatalytic nanofibers/nanohairs coated on the grains. The porous media may also be a ceramic filter, coated with photocatalyst onto the surface, in a transparent housing; or alternatively in a combination of both geometries.

Optionally, the adhesive layer 14 may be an oil based paint as is discussed in further detail below; or may be another thin porous adhesive layer, which advantageously affixes the nanofibers or nanohairs to the porous surface with sufficient attachment, yet allow both gaseous molecules and light to permeate through to the embedded photocatalyst nanofibers upon curing of the adhesive layer so as to resist shear forces from scrubbing and cleaning (indoor) or rain (outdoor). Preferably the adhesive layer may be a hydrophobic paint or coating porous on a molecular level to gas molecules in air and organic molecules in water.

It would be appreciated that the paint can be any colour including white pigments, such as calcium carbonate and titanium dioxide that reflect light effectively; and advantageously may be white. It would be appreciated that the particle size of the pigments matter with the smaller the pigment size, (e.g. preferably down to hundreds of nanometers) the more enhanced the reflective property.

Alternatively, the coating may be a lacquer comprising a polymer dissolved in solvent including volatile organic compounds such as nitrocellulose. The coating could also be acrylic compounds dissolved in several solvents (e.g. xylene, toluene, butyl acetate, etc.) Still further, the coating may be a porous organic matrix comprising a polymer, such as epoxy, polyurethane, chitosan, polyvinylidene fluoride, etc. Advantageously the inorganic nanofiber photocatalyst is dispersed in this porous matrix. The organic matrix plus the nanofiber photocatalyst forms a so-called organic/inorganic nano-composite.

Optionally, for erosion resistance to abrasion from cleaning and scrubbing, the coating may be an inorganic matrix, made of metal or an alloy porous matrix, through which the nanofibers are dispersed. The preparation may be carried out by laying the nanofibers onto a surface through the metal matrix and deposited by various methods, including chemical or physical vapor deposition, sol-gel method, thermal plasma spray, powder metallurgy, and electro-deposition. The inorganic matrix plus the nanofiber photocatalyst forms a so-called inorganic/inorganic nano-composite.

As used herein, the term Nanohairs refers to truncated nanofibers. Truncation can be performed by using sonication at different intensity and time duration to produce nanohairs of various length including between the original length, which is typically several micrometers to a fraction of a micrometer.

Referring to the flowchart depicted in Figure 2, a 0.15M titanium iso-propoxide (TIP) ethanol solution is first spin-coated at a speed of 3000rpm for 30s on the surface of the porous medium. The TIP solution is then calcinated at 450°C for 2 hours to form a T1O2 adhesive layer.

TZB nanofibers are produced from electrospin of TIP with ZnAc and Bi(N0 ₃ ) _3* 5H ₂ 0 and subsequent calcination at 650°C.

TZB nanohair is obtained following sonication of the TZB nanofibers.

Nanofibers or nanohairs suspended in ethanol can be drip coated onto the surface of the porous material containing the T1O2 adhesive layer. Upon evaporation of the ethanol, these are calcinated one more time at 450°C, the nanofibers or nanohairs are attached to the T1O2 adhesive layer.

Generally, nanofibers are longer and these fibers may not penetrate deep into the pores of the entire surface layer of the porous material 12, which may comprise several to even tens of layers comprising grains 20 as shown in Figure 3a. The nanofibers 16 may tend to bridge/staple across adjacent grains resisting entry inside the pores. Consequently, it is possible that only 1 to 2 layers of the grains 20 near the surface of the porous material 12 are coated with the nanofiber photocatalysts 16 as depicted in Figure 3a. In contrast, as depicted in Figure 3b, nanohairs 18 are smaller than the pore opening of the surface layer of the porous material 12. The nanohairs 18 can penetrate in the pores of the surface layer. Ethanol may be used as the suspension medium to carry/transport the nanohairs into the pores of the surface layer after an adhesive layer has already been coated on the surface layer. The nanohairs are left in the pores after the ethanol is evaporated. Further, after calcination at 450°C the nanohairs will be attached to the grains 20 via the adhesive layer with deeper penetration of the photocatalysts compared with Figure 3a.

While the setup shown in Figure 3b allows for simultaneous filtration and photocatalytic oxidation, it would be appreciated that nanohairs 18 attached to the grain surface may be fragile and it would be preferable to carry out filtration upstream of the nanohairs which are better reserved for photocatalytic oxidation. A filtering column 100 having such setup is depicted in Figure 4 in which a layer of porous material 110 comprising of grains 20 not coated with nanohairs 18 are placed on top of the porous material 120 comprising of grains 20 having the nanohairs 18, such that the porous material 110 on top may filter off small particles which may otherwise damage the nanohairs 18. Optionally, a further layer of porous material 130 comprising of grains of smaller size coated with nanohairs 18 may be placed below the porous material 120. The column wall in the light illumination section (i.e. where porous materials 120 and optionally 130 are located) needs to be made of transparent material (e.g. glass).

Figure 5a shows a filtration system 200 utilizing the filtering column 100 of Figure 4. The depicted filtration system is able to filter suspended particles in the feed (by the porous material 110 located near the inlet of the filtering column) and also oxidize organic pollutants (by the photocatalytic oxidation (PCO) effect of the nanohairs 18 attached to the porous material 120 located near the outlet of the filtering column).

Figure 5b shows another filtration system 300 with a filtering column having nanohairs 18 attached grains near the inlet of the filtering column. The placing of the porous material 120 having photocatalytic nanohairs 18 on top of the filtering column are able to prevent membrane fouling from deposition of chemical complexes (organics and inorganics in nature) on the membrane surface which ultimately leads to irreversible low transmembrane flux.

Figure 6 shows a further aspect of the present disclosure wherein nanofibers 16 or nanohairs 18 are attached to a solid surface via a paint 22. The paint is preferably oil-based so that it is not soluble in water. The nanofibers and truncated nanohairs are mixed in the paint in a uniform suspension. The resulting suspension is applied to a surface in a thin layer using a paint brush 30 or similar. Spraying the paint suspension containing nanofibers or nanohairs onto a surface works equally well as it provides a more uniform coating of the suspension onto a much larger surface. After drying, the paint layer forms an adhesive layer 24 (Figure 7) which affixes the nanofibers 16 and nanohairs 18 onto the surface 32 in the region 34 shown.

Preferably, the paint is white in colour. More preferably, the paint contains white pigments 26, such as pigments of calcium carbonate, kaolin or clay of small sizes (above 90% particles 1-2 micrometers) to provide the light reflecting properties for the paint (i.e. grossly paint) and/or Ti02 which helps to reflect light and serves as a light scattering agent, thus trapping the light in a thin layer of painted photocatalyst and assisting oxidation of organic pollutants. Even if the paint is blue, the trapping of light followed by photooxidation works also very well. The blue colour will change to light blue in the presence of room light within two weeks due to photooxidation.

The affixed photocatalyst is depicted schematically in Figure 7. The thin adhesive paint layer 24 may contain the long nanofiber and/or truncated nanohair embedded therein which is attached to the solid surface.

As shown in Figure 8, when light is incident on the surface with affixed nanofibers or nanohairs, electrons are generated and they combine with oxygen in air to form super-anions, while the holes combine with the moisture in the air to form hydroxyl radicals. Both super-anions and the hydroxyl radicals can oxidize the adhered gases molecules, bacteria or viruses that diffuse through the paint layer onto the photocatalyst surface. Once the photo-oxidation reaction (depicted by the equation below) is completed, the harmless substances such as CO2 and H2O in the case of oxidation of formaldehyde are generated and they diffuse back to the air phase through the paint.

Optionally, the adhesive layer can be a hydrophobic paint or coating porous on a molecular level to gas molecules in air and organic molecules in water.

Optionally, the adhesive layer comprises an oil-based paint. It would be appreciated that the paint can be any colour including white pigments, such as calcium carbonate and titanium dioxide that reflect light effectively; and advantageously may be white. It would be appreciated that the particle size of the pigments matter with the smaller the pigment size, (e.g. preferably down to hundreds of nanometers) the more enhanced the reflective property.

Alternatively, the coating may be a lacquer comprising a polymer dissolved in solvent including volatile organic compounds such as nitrocellulose. The coating could also be acrylic compounds dissolved in several solvents (e.g. xylene, toluene, butyl acetate, etc.) Still futher, the coating may be a porous organic matrix comprising a polymer, such as epoxy, polyurethane, chitosan, polyvinylidene fluoride, etc. Advantageously the inorganic nanofiber photocatalyst is dispersed in this porous matrix. The organic matrix plus the nanofiber photocatalyst forms a so-called organic/inorganic nano-composite.

Optionally, for erosion resistance to abrasion from cleaning and scrubbing, the coating may be an inorganic matrix, made of metal or an alloy porous matrix, through which the nanofibers are dispersed. The preparation may be carried out by laying the nanofibers onto a surface through the metal matrix and deposited by various methods, including chemical or physical vapor deposition, sol-gel method, thermal plasma spray, powder metallurgy, and electro-deposition. The inorganic matrix plus the nanofiber photocatalyst forms a so-called inorganic/inorganic nano-composite.

Photo-oxidation reaction of fomaldehyde: CH2O + O2 -> CO2 + H2O

Figure 8 also illustrates an important aspect of the disclosure. The paint has to be applied in thin layers of several millimetres. Upon curing of the painted surface (with photocatalyst nanofibers), the painted layer is porous and permeable to both light and gaseous molecules, such that the gaseous molecules (oxygen, water vapour, harmful VOC and NOx molecules, etc.) can diffuse from ambient air through the porous structure of the paint layer to the underlying nanofibers (see harmful gas molecule, water vapor, oxygen molecules in air diffusing into paint layer illustrating by arrow pointing into the paint layer). The harmful gaseous molecules (NOx and VOC etc.) can be adsorbed onto the surface area of the nanofibers. Light can also permeate through the pores of the paint layer to activate the photocatalyst nanofibers so that photogenerated electrons are formed to produce super-anions and hydroxyl radicals in presence of air (oxygen) and water vapor. After oxidation by the super-anions and hydroxyl radicals, harmless gases (carbon dioxide and water vapor) diffuse back to the bulk air, see arrow pointing away from paint layer. Although water vapor can penetrate through the pores of the paint, the bulk water cannot penetrate into the oil-based paint layer as the surface of the paint layer is hydrophobic. A water layer coated on the oil-based paint will break up into discrete water droplets, each having a wetting angle much larger than 90 degrees. The water droplets will roll off the painted surface (similar to water droplets rolling off a waxed car surface). Therefore, the bulk water will not enter the pores of the paint layer undermining the sub structure. Therefore, the paint layer is still impermeable to the bulk water phase despite water vapor can penetrate in the pores of the paint layer. The water vapor reacts with the positive holes (which have been separated from electrons) of the nanofiber photocatalyst to form hydroxyl radicals for oxidation of pollutant gas molecules adsorbed on the photocatalyst surface. Figure 9 shows an exemplary glass plate (7cm X 7cm) having TZBG nanofibers and nanohairs painted thereupon by an oil-based paint (Camel Professional Synthetic Enamel Paint, White Colour).

Figures 10a and 10b depict respectively photoreactor experiment with affixed photocatalyst 30 (on a 7cm X 7cm glass) and photocatalyst suspended in solution 32 (control experiment). Light sources 34 of 14 VIS (Cool white fluorescent tubes) lamps (LUZCHEM LZC-4Xb photoreactor) were symmetrically placed in the LZC-4X photochemical reactor LUZCHEM (Canadian Company). The light source can be changed with lamps of different wavelength while the intensity of irradiation can be modified by rearranging the number of lamps involved in the test. A UV-VIS spectrophotometer (Agilent Technologies Cary 8454) was used to determine the concentration of Methylene Blue (MB) solutions in the beaker.

The Experiments on photocatalytic oxidation of MB were carried out with 10 milligrams (mg) of freely suspending or affixed TZBG photocatalyst. The results are shown in Figure 11. C on the y-axis represents the concentration of MB and has been normalized with the maximum concentration Co (initial concentration of the MB dye after dark adsorption) for ease of comparison. As can be seen, the solution was first subject to dark conditions for 20 min to allow adsorption of the dye onto the photocatalyst. Subsequently, the light is turned on and the photo oxidation process is initiated under light in which the photocatalyst breaks down the MB dye to a low level. The free 10mg TZBG reduces the MB dye to 62.5% of the original level after 120 min reaching an equilibrium level while the affixed TZBG reduces the MB dye to 65%. The initial rate during the first 60 min is almost identical between the two.

This demonstrates that the affixed nanofibers are comparably effective as the free nanofibers in breaking down the dye or harmful organics with large molecular weight dissolved in water.

Methylene Blue (MB) dye CisHisCINsS is a common test compound to simulate large harmful organics.

For the case with free TZBG, the solution was placed in a centrifuge to separate the TZBG from the liquid suspension. Subsequently, the TZBG was rinsed with distilled water to remove any remaining MB dye. This process is repeated a few times in order to recover and clean/purify the TZBG. In such process, some photocatalyst will be lost. On the other hand, the affixed TZBG photocatalysts are mostly retained on the glass and can be cleaned simply by rinsing the glass plate with water for reuse without losing photocatalyst. The photocatalytic effect of T1O2 P25, TZB nanofibers and TZBG nanofibers affixed on 7cm X 7cm by sol gel was studied and the results shown in Figure 12a. 10mg of the photocatalyst was used. The results on break-down of MB showed the catalytic activities are ranked in the order of TZBG > TZB > Ti0 ₂ (P25).

The photocatalytic effect of T1O2 P25, TZB nanofibers and TZBG nanofibers painted on 7cm X 7cm was studied and the results shown in Figure 12b. 10mg of the photocatalyst was used. The results on break-down of MB showed the catalytic activities are ranked in the order of TZBG > TZB > T1O2 (P25). It can be seen that the painted approach is better than the sol-gel process in affixing the photocatalyst for the present example. A possible explanation is that the photocatalyst nanofibers are more uniformly distributed onto the surface when using the painting approach.

Figure 13 shows an experimental setup for photocatalytic oxidation (PCO) for the removal of nitrogen monoxide (NO) in air. A continuous flow reactor 400 made of stainless steel and covered with Saint Glass at ambient temperature was used. The volume of the rectangular reactor was 4.5 L (10x30x15 cm ³ Hx|_xW). A sample dish 410 (150x25 mm) containing the catalyst nanofibers (either in the pure form or coated on glass) was placed in the centre of the reactor. A 300-W commercial tungsten halogen lamp 420 (General Electric) was used as the simulated solar light source, which was vertically positioned above the sample dish outside the reactor. The integrated ultraviolet (UV) intensity in the range of 310-400 nm was 720 ± 10 pWxcrrr ² . Four mini-fans were mounted around the lamp to stabilize the temperature of the test flow system during the PCO reaction. The NO gas was introduced to the flow reactor from a compressed gas cylinder 430 at a concentration of 50.1 ppm NO (BOC) with nitrogen balance.

The initial concentration of NO was diluted to about 250 ppb by the air stream supplied by a zero air generator 440 (Thermo Environmental Inc. Model 111). The relatively humidity level of the NO flow was controlled by passing the zero air streams through a humidification chamber (not shown). The gas streams were premixed completely by a gas mixer, and the flow rate was controlled at 3 Lmin ^-1 by a mass flow controller 450. The residence time was adjusted accordingly by changing the flow rate. The lamp was turned on after the adsorption-desorption equilibrium was reached among water vapor, gases, and photocatalysts. The concentration of NO was continuously measured by a chemiluminescence NO analyzer 460 (Thermo Environmental Instruments Inc. Model 42c), which can monitor NO, N02, and NOx with a sampling rate of 0.7 L min ¹ . The removal rate (%) of NO was calculated from the concentration of NO, respectively, in the feed and outlet streams and the results were recorder in a computer 470. The reaction of NO with air in the absence of photocatalyst was negligible in a control experiment, with or without light.

Figures 14a and 14b shows respectively the formaldehyde conversion by 90 milligram of the free catalyst (i.e. not affixed to any surface) (Figure 14a) and 10 milligram of photocatalyst painted onto a 7cm X 7cm glass plate (Figure 14b). The results showed comparable catalytic conversion for the catalyst in its free state and when a much smaller amount of photocatalyst was affixed to a surface by an adhesive paint. However, the painted photocatalyst has the advantages that it is non-detachable, hence allows cleaning by simply rinsing the surface with water flow. It can also be used outdoor. There is no concern of nano-materials being detached and being inhaled causing health risks, which it would be appreciated by persons skilled in the art is of great concern in handling or processing nano-materials.

The labels TZBG 3min, TZBG 5min and TZBG 10 min in Figure 14a refers to TZBG nanofibers prepared from graphene suspension that was centrifuged for respectively 3min, 5min and 10min.

Similarly, Figure 15a shows the photocatalytic oxidation of NO by painted T1O2 P25, TZB and TZBG, as well as a painted surface without photocatalyst as a control. This experiment also shows the catalytic activities of these nanoparticles / nanofibers when painted on a surface. An important aspect is that the T1O2, calcium carbonate and kaolin (i.e. white pigments) in the original paint (as purchased before adding photocatalyst) only provide an insignificant effect on photocatalytic oxidation of NO less than 3% as compared to 41.6% achieved with painted 10 milligrams of TZBG nanofibers. Therefore, the major function of the white pigments in the paint is to reflect and scatter the light (i.e. light trapping) than harvesting the light (serving as photocatalyst).

Suprisingly, it has also been determined by the inventors of the present disclosure that the efficiency of the conversion for oil-based paint contain white or non-white pigment is similarly effective.

Referring to Figure 15b photo-oxidation of nitrogen monoxide in air by titanium dioxide P25 nanoparticle, TZB nanofibers and TZBG nanofibers painted onto glass surface using the same protocols as described above, the conversion for paint comprising a white pigment as compared to conversion for oil-based paint comprising a non-white pigment (in this case blue) is unchanged. Both the transient and steady-state portion of the conversion is almost identical for both white and blue colors in Figure 15b revealing the color of the pigment (most likely microsize and not nanosized pigment) for the commercial paint is unimportant for color reflection. As such, surfaces painted by various non-white color commercial paint also proved to be equally effective. On the other hand, special nanosized white pigments introduced in the paint would reflect better light and should have higher conversion efficiency.

Optionally, the adhesive layer can be a hydrophobic paint or coating porous on a molecular level to gas molecules in air and organic molecules in water.

Optionally, the adhesive layer comprises an oil-based paint. It would be appreciated that the paint can be any colour including white pigments, such as calcium carbonate and titanium dioxide that reflect light effectively; and advantageously may be white. It would be appreciated that the particle size of the pigments matter with the smaller the pigment size, (e.g. preferably down to hundreds of nanometers) the more enhanced the reflective property.

Alternatively, the coating may be a lacquer comprising a polymer dissolved in solvent including volatile organic compounds such as nitrocellulose. The coating could also be acrylic compounds dissolved in several solvents (e.g. xylene, toluene, butyl acetate, etc.)

Still futher, the coating may be a porous organic matrix comprising a polymer, such as epoxy, polyurethane, chitosan, polyvinylidene fluoride, etc. Advantageously the inorganic nanofiber photocatalyst is dispersed in this porous matrix. The organic matrix plus the nanofiber photocatalyst forms a so-called organic/inorganic nano-composite.

Optionally, for erosion resistant to abrasion from cleaning and scrubbing the coating may be an inorganic matrix, made of metal or an alloy porous matrix, through which the nanofibers are dispersed. The preparation may be carried out by laying the nanofibers onto a surface through the metal matrix and deposited by various methods, including chemical or physical vapor deposition, sol-gel method, thermal plasma spray, powder metallurgy, and electro-deposition. The inorganic matrix plus the nanofiber photocatalyst forms a so-called inorganic/inorganic nano-composite.

Figure 16 depicts the photocatalytic effect of the four quarters (upper right, upper left, lower right and lower left) of a 7cm X 7cm glass painted with TZBG nanofiber. In each experiment, three quarters of the glass were masked by an opaque material and the photocatalytic activities of the remaining quarter was tested by passing formaldehyde through the reactor. The results indicated nearly identical or very similar catalytic activities in the four quarters, suggesting an even distribution of the photocatalyst on the glass surface. This demonstrates that the application of painting the nanofibers produce a homogeneous product across the 7cmx7cm surface. Larger painted nanofiber photocatalyst surface can be done similarly and uniformly, which is important for practical applications. As mentioned, spraying a mixture of paint and nanofibers is another alternative application technique for coating a large surface or area.

Table 1 compares the painted photocatalyst of TZB and TZBG with the corresponding free state counterparts of TZB and TZBG, with all photocatalyst at 10mg and at steady-state conversion (maximum conversion independent of time). The photocatalytic conversion from the paint is at 2.74%, assuming the photocatalytic function of painted photocatalyst is equivalent to the photocatalytic function from the total contributions, i.e. from the free photocatalyst nanofibers and the paint each acting independently of each other. Thus, the sum is given by the third column of Table 1 , i.e. painted TZB is 29.56% (=26.82%+2.74%), and TZBG is 39.66% (=36.92%+2.74%). However, the actual photocatalytic conversion of the painted photocatalyst for TZB is 29.57% (very close to the sum) yet the painted photocatalyst for TZBG is 41.64% which is higher than 39.66%. This demonstrates that despite the photocatalyst is shielded by the paint, the paint layer is actually porous and the shielding effect is not that strong, and the pigment particles (Ti02, kaolin, calcium carbonate) in the paint help to scatter the light facilitating TZBG to further harvest the light before it escapes in the reflected light. Therefore, the performance of the painted catalyst, instead of hampered due to shielding of the paint layer, is actually higher due to the scattering of light in the paint layer that helps to trap the incident light reducing reflection or loss of the incident light. Therefore, a larger amount of finer pigments in the paint to a certain extent helps to scatter and trap light thus improving the performance of the photocatalyst.

Table 1 - steady state photocatalytic conversion of TZBG and TZB, in the free state and painted.

Further to the above, Table 2 compares the steady-state photocatalytic oxidation of the affixed nanofibers (10mg in all cases) using, respectively, sol-gel and paint on MB dye in water.

Table 2 - steady-state photocatalytic oxidation performance of Ti02 P25, TZB and TZBG affixed by the sol-gel method and paint method

Ti02 P25 affixed by the sol-gel method achieves 13% conversion while painted Ti02 P25 achieves only 5% conversion. TZB achieves 27% when affixed by sol gel method and 29% if affixed by paint, which is higher. TZBG achieves 35% with sol gel while a much higher increase of 49% is achieved with the paint. An interesting comparison is that 10mg of free TZBG only achieves 38%, which is slightly higher than the sol-gel affixed method, but much below the paint affixed method at 49%. This is distinctly related to higher performance of TZBG and the white pigments in the paint that help to scatter the light, similar to that in air application.

Preferably, nanofibers of diameter around 50-1 OOnm are used as photocatalysts. Despite their diameter being larger than the 25nm diameter of T1O2 nanoparticles, the surface of the nanofibers is covered with small nano-crystallites of 10nm in size, which significantly increases the surface area of the nanofibers to an extent that is comparable to that of the T1O2 nanoparticles, which has a surface area about 40-42 m ² /gram.

A small amount of zinc oxide and bismuth oxide is optionally added to the nanofibers such that the resultant Ti0 ₂ -Zn0-Bi ₂ 0 ₃ photocatalyst can also harvest visible light. The UV and visible light take up 50% of the light spectrum, therefore the light harvesting can be increased up to 10 times compared with T1O2 which only absorbs in the UV range.

The nanofibers may be provided in non-woven format, in which each fiber is adhered to other fibers at multiple points. Therefore, it is difficult for a loose fibre to detach from the nanofiber mat; unlike the case of a detached nanoparticle of T1O2 from the group or cluster of particles left dried up on the surface of a wall, floor, or ceiling in the room. The present disclosure provides nanofibers and nanohairs that are affixed on a surface, such that the surface can be cleaned or sustain being wet, from washing indoor, or rain if the surface is installed outdoor, without loss of the nanofibers / nanohairs. This reduces the need for periodically replenishing the nanofiber photocatalyst for maintaining the air/water purification or disinfection function. In addition, the risks that nanomaterials are lost to the surrounding or users inhaling nano-materials are minimized.

The adhesive layer in the present disclosure is suitable for affixing nanofibers and nanohairs onto various surface, whether rigid or flexible, porous or non-permeable. The present disclosure method of affixation is suitable for attaching nanofibers and nanohairs onto even clothes, walls and any surface. There is no reason why paint, especially white paint, or similar cannot be painted on a wearable surface, i.e. clothes such as shirts and pants. The painted shirts and pants can still allow air and water vapour to percolate through the pores of the painted surface and the woven backing materials.

A white paint may be used for painting the nanofibers or nanohairs on a surface. The pigments in the white paint which has a small amount of T1O2 and small sized (several micrometers) calcium carbonate and kaolin/clay particles which help to scatter the incident light in the paint layer allowing the photocatalyst to capture the light more effectively before the light gets reflected, or transmitted, from the surface.

Optionally, the adhesive layer can be a hydrophobic paint or coating porous on a molecular level to gas molecules in air and organic molecules in water.

Optionally, the adhesive layer comprises an oil-based paint. It would be appreciated that the paint can be any colour including white pigments, such as calcium carbonate and titanium dioxide that reflect light effectively; and advantageously may be white. It would be appreciated that the particle size of the pigments matter with the smaller the pigment size, (e.g. preferably down to hundreds of nanometers) the more enhanced the reflective property.

Alternatively, the coating may be a lacquer comprising a polymer dissolved in solvent including volatile organic compounds such as nitrocellulose. The coating could also be acrylic compounds dissolved in several solvents (e.g. xylene, toluene, butyl acetate, etc.)

Still futher, the coating may be a porous organic matrix comprising a polymer, such as epoxy, polyurethane, chitosan, polyvinylidene fluoride, etc. Advantageously the inorganic nanofiber photocatalyst is dispersed in this porous matrix. The organic matrix plus the nanofiber photocatalyst forms a so-called organic/inorganic nano-composite.

Optionally, for erosion resistance to abrasion from cleaning and scrubbing the coating may be an inorganic matrix, made of metal or an alloy porous matrix, through which the nanofibers are dispersed. The preparation may be carried out by laying the nanofibers onto a surface through the metal matrix and deposited by various methods, including chemical or physical vapor deposition, sol-gel method, thermal plasma spray, powder metallurgy, and electro-deposition. The inorganic matrix plus the nanofiber photocatalyst forms a so-called inorganic/inorganic nano-composite.

A prototype air purifier has been built in accordance with the foregoing disclosure. In the prototype, the photo-catalytic section of the purifier has dimensions with length 30cm, width 16cm and height 10cm. The walls are lined with reflective thin-gauge sheet metal for reflecting light inside the box with exception of the top which is formed from a transparent ceiling Plexiglas window 30 cm long x 16 cm wide.

A 100-watt Phillips LED light is placed on the transparent top of the photo-catalytic section to provide the light source for the photocatalyst in the box. Eight (8) 7 cm x 7cm glass tiles painted with TZBG photocatalyst similar to that depicted in Figure 9 were placed on the bottom of the photo-catalytic section. It would be appreciated that the dimensions of the purifier are sized according to the number of tiles to be included.

Air with formaldehyde and other organic compound is first filtered using a microfiber filter at the entrance of the purifier to remove particles and subsequently air with harmful test gas flow through the photo-catalytic section where the harmful gas is converted to harmless substances.

Air was drawn through the purifier by a suction fan with variable speed to provide uniform air flow through the photo-catalytic section of the purifier. A photograph of the prototype air purifier is shown in Figure 17a without the light; exposing the photo-catalytic section and in Figure 17b with the light on top of the photo-catalytic section.

The purifier is placed in a“test box” with dimensions of 45 cm by 45 cm cross-section and 74 cm in length (total volume about 150 litres) enclosed at both ends.

The test box was sprayed with aerosol lacquer black paint so that the initial test box is filled with formaldehyde at initial concentrations of respectively, 370ppb (parts per billion), 160ppb, 290ppb, and 360ppb as measured by a portable formaldehyde meter placed inside the box.

Subsequently, the concentration of the formaldehyde is measured every 5 minutes until the level drops to a low level.

The ratio of the concentration to the initial concentration of the 4 test runs is shown in Figure 18a. As shown in Figure 18a, after 5 minutes, the formaldehyde irrespective of initial concentration plunges down to 10% of its original level, and within 15minutes, it dropped to a few percent of its initial level. It is noted in one run the formaldehyde reached an undetectable level.

The results are shown in Figure 18b in terms of conversion efficiency, and the conversion efficiency of breaking down formaldehyde to harmless substances is very high in the 90% range in the first 5 minutes. This is similar in behaviour as Figures 14a, 14b and 16 for the formaldehyde tests as described herein. The prototype has demonstrated that it can purify formaldehyde at initial high concentration of 300-400ppb down to residual level of 10-20ppb concentration at a rate of 15 litre per minute. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of the present invention in air purification.

In yet a further embodiment of the present application, the significant bactericidal properties of the nanofibre/nanohairs which have been applied to a surface using oil based paint is described.

Referring to Figure 19 there is depicted an exemplary experimental setup in which the bactericidal effect may be demonstrated, in particular for activity against bacteria Escherichia coli (E.coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. Aureus); which are common bacteria found in public toilets.

The concentration of these bacteria on surfaces of public toilets are typically in the range of 300 CFU / ml_ (colony formation unit per milliliter); and the illumination in such facilities is typically around 300 lux.

In the tests conducted, the disinfection capability of an oil based paint coated surface containing photocatalyst was demonstrated, initially under a dim environment of 300 Lux, and also under 500 lux (typical of room light). For reference, normal window light is around 1 ,000 lux. For the purposes of the experimental verification of disinfection effectiveness, a modified standard ISO 22196 was used as is described below; using E.Coli AATCC 25922 and S. Aureus AATCC 6538.

The experimental setup depicted in Figure 19 and used for the purposes of the tests was a transparent plastic petri dish 500 with a cover 510 in which a sample surface was placed. (Advantageously the sample surface was either a control surface (glass slide) 522. The actual sample surface was a glass plate 526) which was coated with an oil based paint to which a photocatalyst was applied. For the purposes of the experimental data obtained, the photocatalyst was Ti02-Zn0-Bi203-Gr nanofiber or nanohair; and the oil based paint included a white pigment calcium carbonate, kaolin or titanium dioxide.

A light source 530 (in this case a torch) was used to illuminate the petri dish 500 and hence the control surface or sample or surface, when the petri dish was placed inside an incubator with temperature conditions at 35 degree Celsius and 90% relative humidity for predetermined time period(s). A sterilised slide cover (524,528) sized appropriately was used to cover the control surface 522 and the sample surface 526 to keep it moist whilst in the incubator.

In the example, the control surface used was a glass slide with dimensions of 5cm x 5cm; although it would be appreciated that any size could have been used; whereas the sample glass plate 526 had dimensions of 7cm x 7cm. After a fixed time interval, the control/samples were removed from the incubator and the bacteria colony concentration on the plates were counted. Measurement of antibacterial activity on the control surface and the sample surface was then determined using the modified standard ISO 22196. For each different time interval, and each different bacterial strain the entire experiment was repeated. Similarly, when light conditions were changed, the experiment was repeated.

At a given time interval, a comparison was made between the two samples, the control and the sample that had coated with the oil based paint and photocatalyst. It would be appreciated that if there was natural birth/death of the bacteria, other than due to the effect of with the oil based paint and photocatalyst killing/disinfection, it is assumed that this would be the same for both samples, and this effect can therefore be ignored.

It should be understood that the above experiments are a conservative simulation of actual disinfective activity in that the light of 300 lux and 500 lux were measured without the plastic cover on the petri dish 500. It would be appreciated that the plastic cover and the plastic side walls of the petri dish will reflect and absorb the light such that the intensity that reaches the oil based paint with nanohairs/nanofibres being significantly reduced below the specified level. Also, it would be appreciated that the light source providing the illumination may have little light with wavelength in the UV spectrum as well as other spectrum.

In one experiment, for each bacteria (E. coli and S. Aureus), the concentration of bacteria remaining has been determined for three different time intervals, 30 minutes, 90 minutes and 180 minutes, respectively; with an initial concentration of 9900 CFU/mL, which is 33 times of a normal level found in public toilets. Illumination for these conditions provided was approximately 300 lux (around that of an average public toilet) using a torch.

As depicted, Figure 20 shows a schematic representation of the two bacterial species, E.coli 530 and S. Aureus 5540, each with Ti02-Zn0-Bi203-Gr nanofiber or nanohair (532,542 respectively) attached to or engaged with the surfaces of the bacterium. As depicted, the nanofibers have a diameter much smaller than the bacteria itself, yet the length or the TZBG nanofibers 532,542 can be as long as the bacteria cell, regardless of S. Aureus 540 or E. coli (530).

Referring now to Figure 21 there is depicted an exemplary schematic view of various mechanisms postulated for disinfection by TZBG nanofibers; as is borne out by the experimental results disclosed further herein. The actual mechanism of killing the bacteria is by contact of the bacteria with the photocatalyst TZBG nanofibers which has both physical and chemical activities as discussed below.

In the article, Antibacterial activity of large-area monolayer graphene film manipulated by charge transfer J Li, G Wang, H Zhu, M Zhang, X Zheng, Z Di, X Liu, X Wang, Scientific reports 4, 4359 notes that the activity of the nanofibers is significantly influenced by the physico-chemical properties of the fibres, experimental setup and microbial strains utilized.

Li et al noted that graphene films on conductor copper and semiconductor germanium substrates surprisingly inhibited the growth of bacteria, however, no antibacterial property was detected for graphene film on Si02.

While there has been review on mechanisms of disinfection by the graphene sheet and graphene added to other materials to produce photo-oxidation, there is no disclosure of material of TZBG nanofibers (rolled-up graphene inside a nanofiber) embedded in a coating and the associated disinfection activity (see. E.g. Graphene-based antimicrobial nanomaterials: rational design and applications for water disinfection and microbial control .K. Zeng, G. Wang, Y. Liu, X.W. Zhang Environ. Sci. Nano, 4 (2017), pp. 2248-2266)

It is postulated there are 4 major mechanisms for the antibacterial activity for TZBG nanofibers, two of which are physical and the other two chemical mechanisms; each of which is depicted schematically in Fig 21.

As shown, four different TZBG nanofibers (rolled-up graphene inside a nanofiber) 550,552,554, 556 are depicted in various locations close to the cellular membrane 560 of an exemplary bacterial cell. As would be appreciated by persons skilled in the art, the internal surface of the cell 570 contains DNA, protections and lipids separated from the external environment 580 by the cellular membrane. As depicted, nanofibers 556 are shown with the sharp-edge of graphene cutting membrane wall 560. According to this mechanism, the pores between the crystallite of TZB (~ 10nm) allow the‘knife-edge’ of rolled-up graphene to be exposed. This exposed knife edge can cut into the bacteria membrane at several places where the nanofiber is anchored and in contact with the bacteria. The bacteria die with cell contents (DNA and protein, etc.) leaking out. This can take place under dark conditions; given this is a mechanical effect.

As can be seen the nanofibers 552 generates electrons, which combine with oxygen in air to generate superoxide O2 . The superoxide oxidizes the bacteria wall 560 puncturing a hole. Also, the holes in the TZBG combine with the water vapor in air to form hydroxyl radicals, OH . This also provides oxidation damaging the bacteria wall. The bacteria die after massive loss of both protein and DNA. Hence this is a chemical mechanism of bactericidal activity.

As is represented by nanofibers 550, under light, the photo-generated electrons 551 can also cause stress on the bacteria wall generating elongation/contraction that kills the bacteria. Hence this is another chemical mechanism of bactericidal activity. As is known in the art, graphene has an affinity to the lipid of the bacteria cell and nanofiber 554 interacts/extracts the lipid inside the bacteria to cause the loss of lipid in the cell.

As seen above, various combinations of both physical and chemical mechanisms can happen concurrently that contribute to the overall disinfection.

The effects of these various disinfection mechanisms can be demonstrated through experiment under dark and various lit-up conditions including 300-lux lighting for simulating a semi-dark toilet, 500-lux simulating a room in a lit condition. By comparison 1000-lux (condition that was not tested) is the setting of a room with bright lighting condition next to the window.

(A) Dark condition

E. coli tests

A 4-hour test has been conducted with two setups running in parallel, one with E. coli at high concentration placed on control dish (no known agent for disinfection) and the other on Whitewash (painted coating on a tile of 7 X 7 cm ² with 10-mg TZBG nanofibers), both under dark condition.

The samples on all three tests used initially were between 10,000 and 13,000 CFU/mL; which is noted to be 33 to 43 equivalent toilets (assuming a standard toilet has 300CFU/ml_,)- adding-up or compounding together.

It is noted, and as set out in detail below, at various time intervals, notwithstanding the high starting bacterial count, the bacterial colonies are practically killed in less than 60 min for the Ti02-Zn0-Bi203-Gr nanofiber or nanohair photocatalyst, applied to the surface in oil based paint including a white pigment calcium carbonate, kaolin or titanium dioxide.

S. Aureus tests

For S. Aureus, similar experiments under dark condition have been conducted. The bacterial counts for these are between 9,000-12,000 for the control yet at 4hour, 150min, and 60min, all the bacteria on the whitewash were eliminated (concentration level less than 1 CFU/mL). The results are documented in detail in Table 1a-c for the E. coli and S. Aureus for, respectively, 4hour, 150min, and 60-min tests.

As shown for Table 1a below, the bacterial count of the E. coli test for the control sample is 11 ,000 CFU/mL (colony formation unit per milli-liter) whereas the one on Whitewash is reduced to less than 1 CFU/mL, therefore the percentage of reduction on bacteria is over 99.99% (=1- 1/11 ,000) after four hours.

Table 1a- CFU after 4 hours, and in no light.

The test is repeated for 150 min (2-1/2 h), and the E. coli sample on the control is 10,000 CFU/mL, while the one on the Whitewash is less than 1 CFU/mL, as shown in Table 1 b, therefore the reduction percentage is again over 99.99%.

Table 1 b - 150 min and no light

The test is further repeated for a shorter interval of 60 min, and the E. coli sample is 13,000 CFU/mL, while the one on the Whitewash is 3 CFU/mL as shown in Table 1c below; therefore the reduction percentage is 99.97%.

Table 1c, 60 min and no light

It is probable, that under dark conditions, the two mechanisms of sharp-edge cutting from the exposed graphene and lipid extraction are the key disinfection mechanisms. B) Light Condition

500-lux:

500-lux is a level corresponding to room light for typical office and home environments.

Table 2a-2c show respectively that bacterial level of over 12,000-15,000 CFU/mL can be killed within 4hour/150 min/ 60 min for samples where the Ti02-Zn0-Bi203-Gr nanofiber or nanohair photocatalyst, is applied to the surface in oil based paint including a white pigment calcium carbonate, kaolin or titanium dioxide under light conditions.

In all cases, photo-oxidation ensures over 99.99% of bacterial (E. coli and S. Aureus) are killed. The killing mechanisms are combined physical (sharp-edge cutting from the exposed graphene and lipid extraction) and chemical (generation of electrons causing stress in the membrane and reactive oxidative species, such as super-oxides O2 , hydroxyl radicals OH-, etc.).

By comparing the dark condition and the light condition at 60 min, there is an improvement in disinfection under light condition of over 99.99%, whereas with dark, it is 99.97%. it is possible that for shorter times than those measured, the contrast between the two would be even more evident.

Table 2a - 4-hour 500 lux test

Table 2b - 150-min, 500 lux test

Table 2c - 60-min 500 lux test

300-lux conditions

The 300-lux light condition is similar to the intensity of light in a room having a dim light condition.

Results of similar tests using the apparatus of Figure 19 with a sample having Ti02-Zn0-Bi203- Gr nanofiber or nanohair photocatalyst, applied to the surface in oil based paint including a white pigment calcium carbonate, kaolin or titanium dioxide. As shown in the below table, at the end of the tests, all bacteria are dead. The initial count for E. coli and S. Aureus were respectively 9600 and 8800 CFU/mL.

Table 3 - 4-hour, 300 lux test

Based on the above tests, it is reassuring that Ti02-Zn0-Bi203-Gr nanofiber or nanohair photocatalyst, applied to the surface in oil based paint including a white pigment calcium carbonate, kaolin or titanium dioxide can provide strong disinfection both under dark and room light condition. More than 30-50 times the concentration of bacteria in an average dirty toilet (300 CFU/mL) are killed within one hour, further exhibiting strong disinfection ability of the nanofiber/nanohair photocatalyst disclosed.

Dark condition provides effective disinfection of 99.97% and a room with a relatively standard light condition kills more than 99.99% bacteria. The bacteria that have been tested are common ones found in a dirty toilet - E. coli and S. Aureus.

It can be seen that the tests demonstrate the (a) at very high bacteria concentration for both E. coli and S. Aureus, the oil based paint and nanofiber/nano-hair photocatalyst can provide effective disinfection, (b) higher light intensity can have higher disinfection effect.

Optionally, it would be appreciated that the adhesive layer can be a hydrophobic paint or coating porous on a molecular level to gas molecules in air and organic molecules in water.

Optionally, the adhesive layer comprises an oil-based paint. It would be appreciated that the paint can be any colour including white pigments, such as calcium carbonate and titanium dioxide that reflect light effectively; and advantageously may be white. It would be appreciated that the particle size of the pigments matter with the smaller the pigment size, (e.g. preferably down to hundreds of nanometers) the more enhanced the reflective property. Alternatively, the coating may be a lacquer comprising a polymer dissolved in solvent including volatile organic compounds such as nitrocellulose. The coating could also be acrylic compounds dissolved in several solvents (e.g. xylene, toluene, butyl acetate, etc.)

Still futher, the coating may be a porous organic matrix comprising a polymer, such as epoxy, polyurethane, chitosan, polyvinylidene fluoride, etc. Advantageously the inorganic nanofiber photocatalyst is dispersed in this porous matrix. The organic matrix plus the nanofiber photocatalyst forms a so-called organic/inorganic nano-composite.

Optionally, for erosion resistance to abrasion from cleaning and scrubbing the coating may be an inorganic matrix, made of metal or an alloy porous matrix, through which the nanofibers are dispersed. The preparation may be carried out by laying the nanofibers onto a surface through the metal matrix and deposited by various methods, including chemical or physical vapor deposition, sol-gel method, thermal plasma spray, powder metallurgy, and electro-deposition. The inorganic matrix plus the nanofiber photocatalyst forms a so-called inorganic/inorganic nano-composite. The above embodiments are described by way of example only. Many variations are possible without departing from the scope of the invention as defined in the appended claims.

Although a variety of examples and other information was used to explain aspects within the scope of the appended claims, no limitation of the claims should be implied based on particular features or arrangements in such examples, as one of ordinary skill would be able to use these examples to derive a wide variety of implementations. Further and although some subject matter may have been described in language specific to examples of structural features and/or method steps, it is to be understood that the subject matter defined in the appended claims is not necessarily limited to these described features or acts. For example, such functionality can be distributed differently or performed in components other than those identified herein. Rather, the described features and steps are disclosed as examples of components of systems and methods within the scope of the appended claims.