PHOTOCHEMICALL Y-GENERATED RADICAL AND GALVANIC WATER TREATMENT

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

[0001] This application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 63/352,303 filed June 15, 2022, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein in its entirety by reference.

BACKGROUND

[0002] Radicals are effective oxidizers in the treatment of water. For example, hydroxyl radicals ( OH) are reactive species that are the strongest oxidants that can be generated in water and can oxidize virtually any compound present in the water matrix, often at a diffusion- controlled reaction speed. Hydroxyl radicals react unselectively once formed and organic contaminants are quickly and efficiently fragmented and converted into small inorganic molecules. Hydroxyl radicals are particularly useful for cleaning biologically toxic or non- degradable materials such as aromatics, pesticides, petroleum constituents, and volatile organic compounds in wastewater, and to treat effluent of secondary treated wastewater. The contaminant materials are largely converted into stable inorganic compounds such as water, carbon dioxide and salts (e.g., mineralization).

[0003] Despite the effectiveness of radicals such as hydroxyl radicals for oxidative wastewater treatment, such processes still have not been put into commercial use on a large scale (especially in developing countries) even up to today mostly because of relatively high associated costs. Lower cost and higher efficiency methods and devices for radical generation are needed.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0004] In various aspects, the present invention provides a method of treating water. The method includes flowing feed water including a radical precursor through a vessel. The vessel includes a galvanic cell and a UV-light source. Flowing the feed water through the vessel contacts the galvanic cell with the feed water, and allows the UV-light source to emit UV light into the feed water, forming product water. The method also includes flowing the product water out of the vessel.

[0005] In various aspects, the present invention provides a method of treating water. The method includes flowing feed water including a radical precursor through a vessel. The radical precursor includes HOOH and optionally further includes O3, S2OT, I’, CO ", HCOV, FFPOF, HPO4 ² ', PO4 ³ ’, HSCU, or a combination thereof. The vessel includes a galvanic cell. The vessel also includes a UV-light source that emits light having a wavelength of 254 nm or less. Flowing the feed water through the vessel contacts the galvanic cell with the feed water, and allows the UV-light source to emit UV light into the feed water, forming product water. The method also includes flowing the product water out of the vessel.

[0006] In various aspects, the present invention provides a water treatment device. The water treatment device includes a vessel. The vessel includes a galvanic cell and a UV-light source. The galvanic cell is configured to contact feed water flowed through the vessel. The UV-light source is configured to emit UV light into the feed water flowed through the vessel. [0007] In various aspects, the present invention provides a water treatment device. The water treatment device includes a vessel. The vessel includes a galvanic cell that includes a cathode including Al, Zn, Fe, Cd, Ni, Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Co, Mn, Pd, Ag, or a combination thereof (e.g., Cu) and an anode including Mg, Al, Fe, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, V, Ce, or a combination thereof (e.g., Al or Mg). The vessel also includes a UV-light source that emits light having a wavelength of 254 nm or less. The galvanic cell is configured to contact feed water flowed through the vessel. The UV-light source is configured to emit UV light into the feed water flowed through the vessel.

[0008] In various aspects, the present invention provides a water treatment device. The water treatment device includes a vessel. The vessel includes a galvanic cell including a cathode including Cu and an anode including Al, Mg, or a combination thereof. The vessel includes an enclosure that has transmittance of light having a wavelength of 254 nm or less, wherein the galvanic cell is inside the enclosure. The vessel also includes a UV-light source that emits light having a wavelength of 254 nm or less, wherein the UV-light source is outside of the enclosure. The galvanic cell is configured to contact feed water flowed into the enclosure in the vessel. The UV-light source is configured to emit UV light into the feed water flowed into the enclosure in the vessel.

[0009] In various aspects, the method and water treatment device of the present invention has advantages over other methods and devices for radical generation. For example, in various aspects, higher radical concentrations can be produced than possible via other methods, such as methods including photocatalytic generation of radicals alone. In various aspects, the present method and device can produce a given concentration of radicals, such as hydroxyl radicals, in a given volume of water, using less energy and or overall cost, than required to generate the same concentration of radicals in the same volume of water by other methods and devices. In various aspects, the present method and device can be used to treat or purify water more efficiently and/or more effectively than other methods or devices. In various aspects, the galvanic cell of the present invention can provide further water treatment independently of the radicals produced thereby, providing additional water purification processes on top of those already provided by the radicals generated by the method.

[0010] In various aspects, using galvanic radical production and photochemical radical production together can enable a greater overall efficiency of radical generation than when used individually. For example, in various aspects, the produced radical concentration can be greater than the sum of the radical concentration formed via galvanic radical production and photochemical radical production when performed individually (e.g., in separate vessels/devices).

[0011] In various aspects, the radicals produced by the method and device of the present invention can effectively eliminate organic compounds in the aqueous phase, rather than collecting or transferring pollutants into another phase like other treatment methods. In various aspects, the radicals produced by the method and device of the present invention can be highly reactive (e.g., hydroxyl radical) and can react with many aqueous pollutants without discriminating, making the method and device of the present invention useful in many scenarios where multiple organic compounds need to be removed simultaneously. In various aspects, the radicals produced by the method and device of the present invention can precipitate metals such as heavy metals (e.g., as M(OH) _X ). In various aspects, the radicals produced by the method and device of the present invention can be used for disinfection. In various aspects, the method and device of the present invention advantageously does not introduce any new hazardous substances into the water due to essentially complete consumption of the produced radicals.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

[0012] The drawings illustrate generally, by way of example, but not by way of limitation, various aspects of the present invention.

[0013] FIG. 1 illustrates a side view of an galvanic cell, in accordance with various aspects.

[0014] FIG. 2 illustrates a major face of an galvanic cell, in accordance with various aspects.

[0015] FIG. 3 illustrates a view of the sides and major face of an galvanic cell, in accordance with various aspects.

[0016] FIG. 4 illustrates a side view of a plurality of galvanic cells, in accordance with various aspects.

[0017] FIG. 5 illustrates a view of a plurality of galvanic cells showing major faces of the cells, in accordance with various aspects.

[0018] FIG. 6 illustrates a photograph showing an end of a galvanic cell in a tubular plug-flow reactor, illustrating anode and cathode rods, in accordance with various aspects.

[0019] FIG. 7 illustrates schematic showing an end of a galvanic cell in a tubular plugflow reactor, illustrating anode and cathode rods, in accordance with various aspects.

[0020] FIG. 8 illustrates a top view of a vessel including a plurality of galvanic cells and a plurality of UV-light sources, in accordance with various aspects.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0021] Reference will now be made in detail to certain aspects of the disclosed subject matter. While the disclosed subject matter will be described in conjunction with the enumerated claims, it will be understood that the exemplified subject matter is not intended to limit the claims to the disclosed subject matter.

[0022] Throughout this document, values expressed in a range format should be interpreted in a flexible manner to include not only the numerical values explicitly recited as the limits of the range, but also to include all the individual numerical values or sub-ranges encompassed within that range as if each numerical value and sub-range is explicitly recited. For example, a range of “about 0.1% to about 5%” or “about 0.1% to 5%” should be interpreted to include not just about 0.1% to about 5%, but also the individual values (e.g., 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%) and the sub-ranges (e.g., 0.1% to 0.5%, 1.1% to 2.2%, 3.3% to 4.4%) within the indicated range. The statement “about X to Y” has the same meaning as “about X to about Y,” unless indicated otherwise. Likewise, the statement “about X, Y, or about Z” has the same meaning as “about X, about Y, or about Z,” unless indicated otherwise.

[0023] In this document, the terms “a,” “an,” or “the” are used to include one or more than one unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. The term “or” is used to refer to a nonexclusive “or” unless otherwise indicated. The statement “at least one of A and B” or “at least one of A or B” has the same meaning as “A, B, or A and B.” In addition, it is to be understood that the phraseology or terminology employed herein, and not otherwise defined, is for the purpose of description only and not of limitation. Any use of section headings is intended to aid reading of the document and is not to be interpreted as limiting; information that is relevant to a section heading may occur within or outside of that particular section.

[0024] In the methods described herein, the acts can be carried out in any order without departing from the principles of the invention, except when a temporal or operational sequence is explicitly recited. Furthermore, specified acts can be carried out concurrently unless explicit claim language recites that they be carried out separately. For example, a claimed act of doing X and a claimed act of doing Y can be conducted simultaneously within a single operation, and the resulting process will fall within the literal scope of the claimed process.

[0025] The term “about” as used herein can allow for a degree of variability in a value or range, for example, within 10%, within 5%, or within 1% of a stated value or of a stated limit of a range, and includes the exact stated value or range. The term “substantially” as used herein refers to a majority of, or mostly, as in at least about 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or at least about 99.999% or more, or 100%. The term “substantially free of’ as used herein can mean having none or having a trivial amount of, such that the amount of material present does not affect the material properties of the composition including the material, such that about 0 wt% to about 5 wt% of the composition is the material, or about 0 wt% to about 1 wt%, or about 5 wt% or less, or less than or equal to about 4.5 wt%, 4, 3.5, 3, 2.5, 2, 1.5, 1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, 0.01, or about 0.001 wt% or less, or about 0 wt%.

[0026] In various aspects, salts having a positively charged counterion can include any suitable positively charged counterion. For example, the counterion can be ammonium (NH4 ⁺ ), or an alkali metal such as sodium (Na ⁺ ), potassium (K ⁺ ), or lithium (Li ⁺ ). In some aspects, the counterion can have a positive charge greater than +1, which can in some aspects complex to multiple ionized groups, such as Zn ²⁺ , Al ³⁺ , or alkaline earth metals such as Ca ²⁺ or Mg ²⁺ .

Method of treating water.

[0027] Various aspects of the present invention provide a method of treating water. The method can include flowing feed water through a vessel. The feed water includes a radical precursor. The vessel includes a galvanic cell. The vessel also includes a UV-light source. Flowing the water through the vessel contacts the galvanic cell with the feed water, and allows the UV-light source to emit UV light into the feed water, to form product water. The method can also include flowing the product water out of the vessel. The method can also include flowing feed water into the vessel. The radical precursor can be added at any suitable time, such as before the water to be treated enters the vessel, after the water to be treated enters the vessel, or a combination thereof.

[0028] The method can be a method of generating radicals in the water for immediate use, such as when the water includes one or more contaminants that are desired to be treated by radicals formed in the vessel. The feed water can be any suitable water, such as uncontaminated water in which radicals are desired to be generated or water that is desired to be treated with radicals, such as fresh water, water from a natural source of water in the environment, drinking water, industrial waste-water, industrial cooling water, pond water, lake water, river water, stream water, ocean water, or a combination thereof.

[0029] The vessel can be any suitable vessel that can accommodate the one or more galvanic cells and the one or more UV-light sources in the vessel, such that the galvanic cells and the UV-light sources. The vessel can have any suitable shape, such as round (e.g., cylindrical) or polygonal (e.g., box-shaped or rectangular prism, such as a flat elongated vessel having a shorter height than width, or such as a cubical vessel). The vessel can be an open vessel, such as an open channel (e.g., a concrete channel) or an open tank. The vessel can be a closed vessel, such as a pipe or other tubular vessel for flowing liquids therethrough (e.g., a tubular reactor, such as a tubular plug flow reactor), or a tank with at least one input and output port. For example, the vessel can be an open concrete channel that has been fitted with the galvanic cell and the UV- light source. For example, vessel can be a tank or a pipe that contains the galvanic cell and the UV-light source. The vessel holds a sufficient quantity of feed water such that the galvanic cells are partially or fully immersed in the feed water, and such that the UV-light source is partially or fully immersed in the feed water. For planar galvanic cells, the cells can be oriented with their major faces perpendicular to the ground, or with their major faces parallel to the ground. The vessel can be open to the environment (e.g., can have an open top, such as an open channel or open tank) or can be sealed (e.g., closed top, such as a pipe). The vessel can have removable portions at the top for access to the one or more galvanic cells and/or the one or more UV-light sources. The one or more UV-light sources can be located inside the portion of the vessel that holds the feed water and the one or more galvanic cells, outside the portion of the vessel that includes the feed water and the one or more galvanic cells. The exterior of the vessel can be opaque, translucent, or transparent. The exterior of the vessel can include a coating or layer for reflecting UV light back into the vessel or to otherwise prevent or reduce the escape of UV light from the vessel. The vessel can include one or more inlets for flowing feed water into the vessel. The vessel can include one or more outlets for flowing feed water out of the vessel. The vessel can include one or more injection sites or injection ports for injection of radical precursor into the feed water.

[0030] The radical precursor can be any one or more suitable radical precursor compounds that can form a radical upon contacting the galvanic cell, upon contacting emitted UV light from the UV-light source, or a combination thereof. For example, the radical precursor can include HOOH, O3, S20s', I’, CCh ² ', HCCV, FFPOF, HPC ² ', PO4 ³ ', HSOs', or a combination thereof. The radical precursor can include hydrogen peroxide (HOOH), which can produce hydroxyl radicals on contact with the galvanic cell and/or can produce hydroxyl radicals via photochemical radical generation from the UV light. The radical precursor can include ozone (O3), which can produce hydroxyl radicals via photochemical radical generation from the UV light. Ionic radical precursors can be added as salts with appropriate cations such as sodium or potassium. For example, the radical precursor can include S20s' (e.g., as NaS2Os and/or KS2O8) which can produce SOT radicals (sulfate radical anions) and/or SO' (sulfite radical anion) upon exposure to UV light. The radical precursor can include T, which can produce iodide radicals. The radical precursor can include HCO or CO ", which can produce carbonate radicals. The radical precursor can include H2P0T, HPO-i ^2- , PO4 ³ ', which can produce phosphate radicals. The radical precursor can include HSOs", which can produce sulfate radicals. The radical precursor can include HOOH, and the radical precursor can further include O3, S20s', T, CO ", HCOv, H2PO4 , HPO4 ² ', PO4 ³ ’, HSOs', or a combination thereof. The radical precursor can include HOOH, and the feed water can be substantially free of O3, S20s', T, CO3 ² ', HCOs', H2PO4', HPO4 ² ', PO4 ³ ', HSOs', or a combination thereof. The radical precursor can include O3, S20s', T, CO3 ² ; HCOs', H2PO4 , HPO4 ² ', PO4 ³ ', HSOs', or a combination thereof, and the feed water can be substantially free of HOOH. The radical precursor (e.g., the one or more radical precursor compounds) can have any suitable concentration in the feed water, such as 0.00001 ppm to 300,000 ppm, or 0.00001 ppm to 100,000 ppm, or 1 ppm to 1,000 ppm, or less than or equal to 300,000 ppm and greater than or equal to 0.00001 ppm, 0.00005, 0.0001, 0.0005, 0.001, 0.005, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 250, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 1,250, 1,500, 2,000, 2,500, 5,000, 10,000, 20,000, 50,000, 75,000, 100,000, 150,000, 200,000, or 250,000 ppm. For example, the feed water can have a concentration of HOOH of 0.00001 ppm to 100,000 ppm, a concentration of O3 of 0.00001 ppm to 100,000 ppm, a concentration of S20s' of 0.00001 ppm to 100,000 ppm, and a concentration of I" of 0.00001 to 100,000 ppm. The concentration of the radical precursor can be sufficient to achieve a desired rate of radical generation and subsequent mineralization/oxidation.

[0031] The method can include adding the radical precursor to the feed water at any suitable location. The radical precursor can be added to the feed water prior to flowing the feed water into the vessel (e.g., before the feed water enters the vessel). The radical precursor can be added to the feed water in one or more locations while the feed water is in the vessel; e.g., the vessel can include one or more injectors for injecting radical precursor into the vessel. In some aspects, the radical precursor is added to the feed water prior to flowing the feed water into the vessel, and radical precursor is also added to the feed water in one or more locations within the vessel.

[0032] One or both of the contacting of the galvanic cell with the feed water and the emission of the UV light into the feed water causes the formation of radicals from the radical precursor. In some aspects, both of the contacting of the galvanic cell with the feed water and the emission of the UV light into the feed water cause the formation of radicals from the radical precursor. In other aspects, only (or predominantly) the emission of the UV light into the feed water causes the formation of radicals from the radical precursor.

[0033] For example, in some aspects, both of the contacting of the galvanic cell with the feed water and the emission of the UV light into the feed water cause the formation of radicals from the radical precursor. The contacting of the galvanic cell with the feed water forms radicals from at least one radical precursor compound that is included in the radical precursor. The emission of the UV light into the feed water forms radicals from at least one radical precursor compound that is included in the radical precursor. The at least one radical precursor compound that forms radicals via contacting the galvanic cell and via contacting the UV light can be the same radical precursor compound or a different radical precursor compound. For example, the radical precursor compound can be HOOH, and both the galvanic cell and the UV light can cause formation of hydroxyl radicals. For example, the radical precursor can include HOOH and O3, and HOOH can form hydroxyl radicals from contact with the galvanic cell, and O3 can form hydroxyl radicals via contacting the UV light. For example, the radical precursor can include HOOH and NaS2Os, and HOOH can form hydroxyl radicals from contact with the galvanic cell, and NaS20s can form SOT radicals (sulfate radical anions) and/or SO3' (sulfite radical anions) via contacting the UV light.

[0034] In another example, only (or predominantly) the emission of the UV light into the feed water causes the formation of radicals from the radical precursor. For example, the radical precursor can include O3, and O3 can form hydroxyl radicals via contacting the UV light. For example, the radical precursor can include NaS2Os, and NaS2Os can form SOT radicals (sulfate radical anions) and/or SO' (sulfite radical anions) via contacting the UV light. In such aspects, the galvanic cell can perform non-radical chemical treatment to the feed water (e.g., such as ionbased chemical treatment from the galvanic reaction between the anode and the cathode).

[0035] Using any one or more of the radical precursors described herein, the one or more galvanic cells along with the photochemical radical generation in the vessel together can operate to (via radical treatment and/or via generation of H2 and/or HO' at the surface of the anode and/or cathode of the galvanic cell) eliminate or reduce an emulsion in the feed water, coagulate and/or precipitate suspended solids from the feed water, remove or decrease the concentration of one or more organic compounds in the feed water, remove or decrease the concentration of one or more inorganic compounds in the feed water, remove or decrease the concentration of one or more dyes and/or inks in the feed water, remove or decrease the concentration of one or more metals in the feed water, remove or decrease the concentration of one or more heavy metals in the feed water, remove or decrease the concentration of one or more toxic compounds and/or materials in the feed water, remove or decrease the concentration of fluoride in the feed water, remove or decrease the concentration of sulfide in the feed water, remove or decrease the concentration of arsenic in the a feed water, reduce the chemical oxygen demand (COD) of the feed water, reduce the turbidity of the feed water, remove or decrease the concentration of silica in the feed water (e.g., SiO "), or a combination thereof. The method can include filtering the product water to remove a precipitate from the water generated or increased in size by the galvanic cell and/or by radical treatment, wherein the precipitate includes materials from the feed water (in original or modified/degraded form) that are desired to be removed by the method. [0036] Within the vessel, the contacting of the galvanic cell with the feed water and the emission of the UV light into the feed water can occur simultaneously, such that water that is contacting the galvanic cell is simultaneously being irradiated with the UV light. The simultaneous contact can include simultaneously contacting the same volume of water into which the UV light is emitted. In various aspects, the galvanic cell and the UV-light source can be positioned such that the UV-light source is as close to cathode regions of the galvanic cell as is reasonably possible, such as wherein a UV-light bulb of the UV-light source and a cathode have a separation distance of 1 mm to 400 mm, 1 mm to 200 mm, or 2 mm to 100 mm, or less than or equal to 110 mm and greater than or equal to 1 mm, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200, 220, 240, 260, 280, 300, 320, 340, 360, or 380 mm. In various embodiments, closer physical proximity of the UV-light source and the cathode can provide higher radical concentration and more effective treatment (e.g., faster and more complete mineralization/oxidation of contaminants).

[0037] The contacting of the galvanic cell with the feed water and the emission of the UV light into the feed water can occur sequentially, such that water that is not in contact with the galvanic cell is irradiated with the UV light. The method can include a combination of simultaneous and sequential contacting of the galvanic cell with the feed water and emission of the UV light into the feed water from the UV-light source. [0038] The method can include using a single vessel including the galvanic cell and the UV-light source, or a plurality of vessels each including a galvanic cell and a UV-light source. The multiple vessels can be used in parallel, in series, or a combination thereof. Using multiple vessels can provide more intensive water treatment and/or can generate higher and/or more sustained radical concentrations.

[0039] The galvanic cell includes one or more anodes and one or more cathodes. The method includes using the galvanic cell as a galvanic cell, such that no external electrical potential is applied across the anode and the cathode of the galvanic cell. The vessel can include one and not more than one galvanic cell, or the vessel can include a plurality of the galvanic cells (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, or 20 or more). The galvanic cell can be any suitable galvanic cell, such as a galvanic cell disclosed in U.S. pat. nos. 11,225,420 or 11,220,443, or in U.S. application nos. 17/340,254 or 17/554,229, hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. [0040] The anode and the cathode of the galvanic cell can be any suitable physical form and can have any suitable physical arrangement with respect to one another. For example, the anode and the cathode can independently include a rod, a bar, a tube, a sheet, a plate, an inclined plate, a strip, a non-porous material, a porous material, a screen, a wire mesh, or a combination thereof. The anode and cathode can independently be rods, bars, or a combination thereof. The anode can be a strip or plate, and the cathode can be a porous material. The porous material can include a screen, a wire mesh, or a combination thereof. The anode and the cathode have different chemical compositions. The galvanic cell can include physical contact between the anode and the cathode. The galvanic cell can be free of physical contact between the anode and the cathode. In various aspects, the anode and the cathode each have a planar form. The anode and the cathode can each have planar forms and can be arranged with a major face of each parallel to one another such that a gap is formed therebetween, and such that the anode and the cathode are free of physical contact with one another. The anode and the cathode can each have rod-shaped forms and can be arranged with a longitudinal axis of each parallel to one another such that a gap is formed therebetween. The rod-shaped electrodes can be free of physical contact with one another; for example, the rod-shaped electrodes can pass through holes in a disc or plate that serves as a connector to physically connect the rods with the connector and to maintain the gap between the rods. The gap can have a substantially consistent size across the galvanic cell. The gap can be any suitable size, such as 1 mm to 110 mm, or 2 mm to 30 mm, or less than or equal to 110 mm and greater than or equal to 1 mm, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100 mm. The anode can be a plate or a rod. The anode can have a planar non-porous form, or a non-porous rod-shaped form.

[0041] The anode and the cathode can independently include lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, radium, aluminum, gallium, indium, tin, thallium, lead, bismuth, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, lanthanum, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, carbon (e.g., graphite, graphene, glassy carbon, carbon nanotubes), an alloy thereof, or a combination thereof. The cathode has a more positive standard electrode potential than the anode. The materials listed in this disclosure for the anode and cathode can form the bulk of the anode or cathode, or can be a coating on another material (e.g., a suitable substrate such as titanium, stainless steel, carbon steel, or carbon (such as boron-doped diamond (BDD), graphite, graphene, or a combination thereof)). The materials used for the anode and the cathode allow the galvanic cell to catalyze reactions such as reduction of protons, decomposition of water, oxygen reduction, reduction of hydrogen peroxide with generation of OH radicals, or a combination thereof. The galvanic cell can oxidize materials or compounds in the water, absorb materials or compounds in the water (e.g., as a salt), or a combination thereof.

[0042] The cathode of the galvanic cell can include Al, Zn, Fe, Cd, Ni, Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Co, Mn, Pd, Ag, and alloy thereof, or a combination thereof, such as Cu or a Cu alloy. The cathode can be a solid or porous material. The cathode can be a wire mesh or screen. The cathode can be predominantly Al, Zn, Fe, Cd, Ni, Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Co, Mn, Pd, Ag, alloys thereof, or a combination thereof, or can be another material (e.g., a suitable substrate such as titanium, stainless steel, carbon steel, or carbon (such as boron-doped diamond (BDD), graphite, graphene, or a combination thereof)) that is coated with predominantly Al, Zn, Fe, Cd, Ni, Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Co, Mn, Pd, Ag, alloys thereof, or a combination thereof. The cathode can be substantially free of materials other than Al, Zn, Fe, Cd, Ni, Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Co, Mn, Pd, Ag, alloys thereof, or a combination thereof. The cathode can be about 50 wt% to about 100 wt% Al, Zn, Fe, Cd, Ni, Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Co, Mn, Pd, Ag, alloys thereof, or a combination thereof, or about 90 wt% to about 100 wt%, or less than, equal to, or greater than about 50 wt%, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 82, 84, 86, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 99.5, 99.9, 99.99, or about 99.999 wt% or more. In some aspects, the cathode includes Cu and the anode includes Al, Mg, Zn, and/or Fe. In some aspects, the cathode includes Cu and the anode includes Mg. In some aspects, the cathode includes Cu and the anode includes Al. The cathode can be a Cu screen or a Cu wire mesh, such as a screen or mesh that is solid Cu or a screen or mesh that has a Cu coating or plating thereon. The cathode can be a Cu screen or mesh that has a non-continuous coating of Cu thereon. The cathode can be a Cu rod, such as a Cu rod that is solid Cu or that has a Cu coating or plating thereon. The cathode can be a Cu rod that has a non-continuous (e.g., deposited) coating of Cu thereon.

[0043] The anode can include Mg, Al, Fe, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, V, Ce, or a combination thereof, such as Mg, Al, or a combination thereof. The anode can include an alloy that includes Mg, Al, Fe, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, V, Ce, or an alloy thereof. The Mg, Al, Fe, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, V, Ce, alloys thereof, or combinations thereof, can be about 50 wt% to about 100 wt% of the anode, or less than, equal to, or greater than about 50 wt%, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, or about 99, 99.5, 99.9, 99.99, or about 99.999 wt% or more. The anode can be predominantly Mg, Al, Fe, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, V, Ce, alloys thereof, or combinations thereof, or can be another material (e.g., a suitable substrate such as titanium, stainless steel, carbon steel, or carbon (e.g., BDD, graphite, graphene, or a combination thereof)) that is coated with predominantly Mg, Al, Fe, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, V, Ce, alloys thereof, or combinations thereof. The anode can be substantially free of materials other than Mg, Al, Fe, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, V, Ce, alloys thereof, or combinations thereof. The anode can further include Ag, Pt, Au, or a combination thereof. The Ag, Pt, Au, or the combination thereof is about 0.0001 wt% to about 20 wt%, about 0.0001 wt% to about 5 wt%, or about 0 wt%, or about 0.0001 wt% or less, or 0.0002, 0.0004, 0.0006, 0.0008, 0.0010, 0.0012, 0.0014, 0.0016, 0.0018, 0.0020, 0.0022, 0.0024, 0.0026, 0.0028, 0.0030, 0.0032, 0.0034, 0.0036, 0.0038, 0.0040, 0.0045, 0.0050, 0.0060, 0.0080, 0.01, 0.02, 0.04, 0.06, 0.08, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1, 1.5, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, or about 20 wt% or more. The anode can include Mg or an Mg alloy. The anode can be substantially free of materials other than Mg or alloys thereof. The anode can be magnesium alloy AZ91 that is about 90 wt% Mg, about 9 wt% Al, and about 1 wt% Zn. The anode can be about 50 wt% to about 100 wt% Mg or Mg alloy, about 90 wt% to about 100 wt% Mg or Mg alloy, or less than, equal to, or greater than about 50 wt%, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 99.5, 99.9, 99.99, or about 99.999 wt% Mg or Mg alloy or more. The anode can include Al. The anode can be substantially free of materials other than Al. The anode can be about 50 wt% to about 100 wt% Al, about 90 wt% to about 100 wt% Al, or less than, equal to, or greater than about 50 wt%, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, or about 99, 99.5, 99.9, 99.99, or about 99.999 wt% or more. The anode can be an Al or Mg plate or rod, such as a plate or rod that is solid Al or Mg or a plate or rod that includes an Al or Mg coating or plating thereon. The anode can be an Al or Mg rod or plate that has a non- continuous (e.g., deposited) coating of Cu thereon.

[0044] The anode and/or cathode can be free of plated coatings of deposited metals thereon. In other aspects, the anode and/or cathode includes a plating and/or deposition thereon including Mg, Al, Fe, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, V, Ce, Sn, Pb, Ag, Co, Mn, Pd, Mo, carbon (e.g., BDD, graphite, graphene, or a combination thereof), or a combination thereof. A plating can be a continuous coating of the metal thereon. A deposition (e.g., chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, electrodeposition, electroless deposition, chemical reduction, or a combination thereof) can form a discontinuous coating of the deposited metal thereon. For example, in electroless deposition, a solution of the desired metal ion can be contacted for a brief period (e.g., 30 sec to 1 min) with the anode or the cathode such that the metal ion is deposited onto the surface of the contacted electrode. In various aspects, the cathode comprises Cu and includes a deposited Cu coating, and the anode comprises Al and includes a deposited Cu coating.

[0045] In various aspects, the anode can include a plating or deposition of a metal thereon, wherein the plated and/or deposited metal is a cathode or is the cathode; the deposited or plated cathode on the anode can be the only cathode in the galvanic cell (e.g., an electroless configuration), or the galvanic cell can further include another cathode that is not plated or deposited on the anode and that includes Al, Zn, Fe, Cd, Ni, Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Co, Mn, Pd, Ag, carbon (e.g., BDD, graphite, graphene, or a combination thereof), or a combination thereof. In various aspects, the anode includes Cu plated and/or deposited onto a surface thereof, wherein the cathode includes Cu and wherein the cathode is not plated or deposited on the anode including Al. [0046] The method can include forming H2 and HO' at the anode (e.g., generate on the surface of the anode, from water) during the immersing of the galvanic cell in the feed water. The method can include forming H2 and HO' at the cathode (e.g., generate on the surface of the cathode, from water) during the immersing of the galvanic cell in the feed water. The method can include forming H2O2, HO2', or a combination thereof at the cathode (e.g., generate on the surface of the cathode) during the immersing of the galvanic cell in the feed water. The method can include applying shear to the water including the phosphorus during the immersing of the galvanic cell in the feed water. The shear can be sufficient to dislodge at least some bubbles (e.g., including H2) from the surface of the anode, cathode, or a combination thereof. The shear can be sufficient to at least partially prevent or reduce oxide formation at the surface of the anode. The method can include applying a mechanical force to the galvanic cell immersed in the feed water, such as a rapping, knocking, agitating, vibration, ultrasound, and the like. The mechanical force can be sufficient to dislodge at least some bubbles including H2 from the surface of the anode, cathode, or a combination thereof; at least partially prevent oxide formation at the surface of the anode; at least partially prevent agglomeration of salts or other precipitates formed from the treatment; or a combination thereof.

[0047] The galvanic cell can include one or more connectors that physically connect the anode and the cathode. The connector can be any suitable connector, such as including a weld, a fastener, a fastener assembly, a threaded fastener, a screw, a bolt, a bracket, a nut, a washer, a plate or disc with through- holes to fit the anode and/or cathode, or a combination thereof. In some aspects, the connector can maintain a gap between the anode and the cathode (e.g., a continuous gap, or a local gap), preventing the anode and cathode from being moved further apart or closer together. The anode and cathode can include one or more through-holes, wherein each through-hole is for passing a connector therethrough thereby securing the anode and cathode together. The connector can be a plate or disc that includes one or more through-holes, wherein each through-hole is for passing an anode or cathode thereby securing the connector and the electrode(s) together.

[0048] In various aspects, the galvanic cell can include a conductive connector. The conductive connector can physically and electrically connect the anode and the cathode. The conductive connector can maintain a gap between the anode and the cathode (e.g., the conductive connector can hold the anode and the cathode apart to maintain the gap therebetween), or the conductive connector can hold the anode and the cathode in contact with one another. The conductive connector can include any suitable electrically conductive material. The conductive connector can include Cu, Zn, Fe, Cd, Ni, Sn, Pb, or a combination thereof. The conductive connector can include Cu. The conductive connector can include Zn. The conductive connector can include an alloy including Cu and Zn. The conductive connector can include brass, stainless steel, or a combination thereof. The conductive connector can include any suitable physical form, such as a weld, a fastener, a fastener assembly, a threaded fastener, a screw, a bolt, a bracket, a nut, a washer, or a combination thereof. The anode and cathode can include one or more suitably-sized through-holes to allow the conductive connector to pass therethrough (e.g., holes for a fastener, screw, or bolt). The conductive connector can include one or more suitably- sized through holes to allow the anode and/or cathode to pass therethrough; for example, the conductive connector can be a metal disc or plate including holes through which one or more anodes and one or more cathodes pass (e.g., as an end-cap on anode/cathode rods, or occurring between the ends of anode/cathode rods). The holes can tightly fit the anode or cathode. In various aspects, the holes through which the electrodes pass can maintain a gap between the anode or cathode, such as a continuous gap or a local gap. The anode or cathode can be welded to the conductive connector, such as within holes in the conductive connector, to ensure a tight connection between the electrode and the conductive connector.

[0049] The galvanic cell can include a nonconductive connector that physically connects the anode and the cathode but that does not provide an electrical connection between the anode and the cathode. The nonconductive connector can include any suitable non-electrically conductive material, such as plastic, glass, rubber, or a combination thereof, and/or wherein the nonconductive connector includes a conductive connector coated with a non-conductive material. The nonconductive connector includes a weld, a fastener, a fastener assembly, a threaded fastener, a screw, a bolt, a bracket, a nut, a washer, or a combination thereof. The nonconductive connector can include one or more suitably-sized through holes to allow the anode and/or cathode to pass therethrough; for example, the conductive connector can be a electrically non-conductive disc or plate including holes through which one or more anodes and one or more cathodes pass (e.g., as an end-cap on anode/cathode rods, or occurring between the ends of anode/cathode rods). The holes can tightly fit the anode or cathode. In various aspects, the holes through which the electrodes pass can maintain a gap between the anode or cathode, such as a continuous gap or a local gap. In various aspects, the galvanic cell includes no conductive connectors or nonconductive connectors. In various aspects, the galvanic cell includes conductive connectors but is free of nonconductive connectors. In various aspects, the galvanic cell includes nonconductive connectors and is free of conductive connectors. In various aspects, the galvanic cell includes a combination of conductive connectors and nonconductive connectors.

[0050] FIG. 1 illustrates side view of an galvanic cell 100, in accordance with various aspects. The galvanic cell includes planar nonporous anode 110 with wire mesh cathodes 120 attached thereto in a parrallel configuration via conductive connector 130 to maintain a gap between the cathodes and the major faces of the anodes. The wire mesh cathodes 120 sandwich the planar nonporous anode. The anode can be an aluminum plate. The cathodes can be copper wire mesh. The conductive connector can be a brass fastener assembly, such as a bolt, nut, and washers.

[0051] FIG. 2 illustrates a major face an galvanic cell 100, in accordance with various aspects. The galvanic cell includes a planar nonporous anode (not shown) with wire mesh cathode 120 attached thereto in a parallel configuration via conductive connector 130 to maintain a gap between the cathode and the major face of the anode. The galvanic cell includes hole 140 that goes through the galvanic cell.

[0052] FIG. 3 illustrates a view of the sides and major face of a galvanic cell 100, in accordance with various aspects. The galvanic cell includes planar nonporous anode 110 with wire mesh cathodes 120 attached thereto in a parallel configuration via conductive connectors 130. The galvanic cell includes hole 140 that goes through the galvanic cell.

[0053] A plurality of galvanic cells can be each attached to one or more structural connectors. The structural connector can include a rod, a pipe, a beam, a hangar, a bracket, a hook, or a combination thereof. The structural connector can include a non-conductive material such as a plastic (e.g., a nylon, PVC, polyethylene, or combination thereof). The structural connector can include a conductive material such as a metal alloy (e.g., carbon steel, stainless steel, or another steel alloy). In some aspects, the conductive material is coated with a nonconductive material such as a non-conductive paint (e.g., an epoxy-based paint) or that is encased with a non-conductive material such as rubber, a plastic tube, or pipe. The structural connector can include a carbon steel rod coated with an epoxy-based paint. The galvanic cells can be removably attached to the one or more structural connectors. The electrochemical cells can each be hanging from the one or more structural connectors. The galvanic cells can include one or more through-holes, such that the one or more structural connectors attach to the galvanic cells through the one or more through-holes in each galvanic cell.

[0054] FIG. 4 illustrates side view of a plurality of galvanic cells 200, in accordance with various aspects. FIG. 5 shows a total of 11 galvanic cells, each including a planar nonporous anode, two wire mesh cathodes attached thereto in a parallel configuration on either side of the anode via three conductive connectors that maintain a gap between the cathodes and the anodes. The plurality of galvanic cells includes support rod 210 which goes through a hole in each cell. The plurality of galvanic cells can be secured by and hang from the support rod.

[0055] FIG. 5 illustrates a side view of a plurality of galvanic cells from FIG. 4, showing major faces of the cells. In FIG. 5, a frame at the end of the plurality of cells holds the support rod that supports the cells.

[0056] FIG. 6 illustrates a photograph showing an end of a galvanic cell in a tubular plug-flow reactor. The photograph illustrates copper and aluminum rods. Some of the rods have a gap therebetween, while other rods are allowed to contact one another in various locations. Below the area of the photograph, the galvanic cell includes a stainless steel conductive connector in the shape of a flat puck having holes therein running from one major face to the other major face that fit the rods to maintain a gap between the rods at least at the location of the conductive connector.

[0057] FIG. 7 illustrates schematic showing an end of a galvanic cell in a tubular plugflow reactor, illustrating anode and cathode rods. FIG. 7 is a simplified schematic of the photograph shown in FIG. 6. FIG. 7 illustrates tubular reactor 300 having a galvanic cell therein that includes larger cathode rods 310 and smaller anode rods 320. The cathode rods 310 and the anode rods 320 include a gap therebetween.

[0058] The vessel can include one and not more than one UV-light source. The vessel can include a plurality of UV-light sources. The UV-light source can include an enclosure including a UV-light bulb, wherein the enclosure is transparent or translucent to UV light. The enclosure can include the UV-light bulb within an interior of the enclosure, or outside the enclosure (e.g., the enclosure can enclose the feed water). The enclosure can be immersed within the feed water in the vessel. The enclosure can include one and not more than one UV- light bulb, or can include a plurality of UV-light bulbs. The enclosure can be substantially water-tight to prevent water in the vessel from passing through the enclosure to reach the one or more UV-light bulbs. The UV-light bulb can include an Xe2 bulb, KrCh bulb, LP-Hg bulb, Xe arc bulb, a MP-Hg bulb, an LED bulb, or a combination thereof.

[0059] The enclosure can be made of any suitable material that is transparent or translucent to UV light, such that the enclosure has transmittance to the UV light (e.g., transmittance of 30-100%, or 50-100%, or 80-100%, or 90% or more), such as light having a frequency of 254 nm or less, or light having a frequency of 100 nm to 254 nm. The enclosure can include synthetic fused silica, fused quartz, borosilicate optical glass, glass, polystyrene, or a combination thereof. The UV-light source can emit UV light having a frequency of 254 nm or less into the feed water, such as 100 nm to 254 nm, into the feed water.

[0060] The enclosure can have any suitable physical form. The enclosure can have the form of a plate or a tube. The tube can be free of bends within the vessel; for example, the vessel can include one or a plurality of tubes free of bends within the vessel, each tube including one or more of the UV-light bulbs. The tube can include one or more bends within the vessel; for example, the vessel can include a tube including one or more bends within the vessel and also including more than one straight section of the tube within the vessel.

[0061] In various aspects, the enclosure can include a wall of the vessel, wherein the UV- light source can emit UV light through the wall of the vessel into the feed water. The vessel can further include another exterior wall that is UV-reflective, such that UV light is reflected by the UV-reflective wall toward the feed water in the vessel. The UV-reflective wall can prevent or reduce escape of UV light from the vessel or reduce the amount of such light that is absorbed by the vessel wall. The UV-reflective wall can include any suitable reflective material, such as Ag, Au, Cu, Al, Pd, Pt, or a combination thereof.

[0062] The method can generate any suitable concentration of radicals in the product water, such that the concentration of radicals in the product water is greater than the concentration of radicals in the feed water. For example, the method can generate a concentration of radicals in the product water of 0.00001 ppm to 300,000 ppm, or 0.00001 ppm to 100,000 ppm, or 1 ppm to 1,000 ppm, or less than or equal to 300,000 ppm and greater than or equal to 0.00001 ppm, 0.00005, 0.0001, 0.0005, 0.001, 0.005, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 250, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 1,250, 1,500, 2,000, 2,500, 5,000, 10,000, 20,000, 50,000, 75,000, 100,000, 150,000, 200,000, or 250,000 ppm. For example, the product water can have a concentration of HO radicals of 0.00001 ppm to 200,000 ppm and/or a concentration of SOT radicals (sulfate radical anions) radicals and/or SO< (sulfite radical anions) of 0.00001 ppm to 100,000 ppm. The radicals can be partially or fully consumed by the time the product water is flowed out from the vessel.

Water treatment device.

[0063] Various aspects of the present invention provide a water treatment device for carrying out the method of the present invention for galvanic and photochemical radical generation as described herein. The water treatment device can be a water treatment system. The water treatment device can include any one or more features described herein with respect to the method. For example, the water treatment device can include a vessel that includes a galvanic cell and a UV-light source. The galvanic cell can be configured to contact feed water flowed through the vessel, and the UV-light source can be configured to emit UV light into the feed water flowed through the vessel.

[0064] In various aspects, the water treatment device includes a vessel that includes a galvanic cell including a cathode including Cu and an anode including Al, Mg, or a combination thereof. The vessel includes an enclosure that has transmittance of light having a wavelength of 254 nm or less, wherein the galvanic cell is inside the enclosure. The vessel also includes a UV- light source that emits light having a wavelength of 254 nm or less, wherein the UV-light source is outside of the enclosure. The galvanic cell is configured to contact feed water flowed into the enclosure in the vessel and the UV-light source is configured to emit UV light into the feed water flowed into the enclosure in the vessel.

[0065] FIG. 8 illustrates a top view of a vessel 400, in accordance with various aspects. The vessel 400 includes an enclosure 430 that is a UV-light transparent wall. Within the enclosure 430, the vessel 400 includes a plurality of galvanic cells 410. The enclosure 430 is water tight, such that water cannot escape from the enclosure. Outside the enclosure 430, the vessel 400 includes a plurality of UV-light bulbs 420 arranged in a circle around the exterior of the enclosure 430. The UV-light bulbs 420 are sandwiched between the enclosure 430 and an opaque wall 440 which forms the exterior of the vessel 400. In some aspects, the wall 440 includes an interior surface that reflects UV light. In some aspects, the wall 440 is transparent, and the exterior of wall 440 includes a coating or layer that reflects UV light back into the vessel. Water can be flowed through the vessel in a direction that is through the plane of FIG. 8.

[0066] The terms and expressions that have been employed are used as terms of description and not of limitation, and there is no intention in the use of such terms and expressions of excluding any equivalents of the features shown and described or portions thereof, but it is recognized that various modifications are possible within the scope of the aspects of the present invention. Thus, it should be understood that although the present invention has been specifically disclosed by specific aspects and optional features, modification and variation of the concepts herein disclosed may be resorted to by those of ordinary skill in the art, and that such modifications and variations are considered to be within the scope of aspects of the present invention.

Exemplary Aspects.

[0067] The following exemplary aspects are provided, the numbering of which is not to be construed as designating levels of importance:

[0068] Aspect 1 provides a method of treating water, the method comprising: flowing feed water comprising a radical precursor through a vessel, the vessel comprising a galvanic cell, and a UV-light source, to contact the galvanic cell with the feed water and such that the UV-light source emits UV light into the feed water, to form product water; and flowing the product water out of the vessel.

[0069] Aspect 2 provides the method of Aspect 1, wherein the radical precursor comprises HOOH, O3, S20s', I’, CCh ² ', HCCh', FEPOF, HPC ² ', PO4 ³ ', HSOs', or a combination thereof.

[0070] Aspect 3 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-2, wherein the radical precursor comprises HOOH.

[0071] Aspect 4 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-3, wherein the radical precursor comprises HOOH, and wherein the radical precursor further comprises O3, S20s', I’, CO3 ² ; HCO3', H2PO4 , HPO4 ² ', PO4 ³ ’, HSOs', or a combination thereof. [0072] Aspect 5 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-4, wherein the radical precursor comprises HOOH, and wherein the feed water is substantially free of O3, S2OA I", CO3 ² ; HCO3', H2PO4 , HPO4 ² ', PO4 ³ HSOs', or a combination thereof.

[0073] Aspect 6 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-5, wherein the radical precursor comprises O3, S20s', P, CO3 ² ', HCCh', ILPC ', HPO4 ² ', PO4 ³ ', HSOs', or a combination thereof, and wherein the feed water is substantially free of HOOH.

[0074] Aspect 7 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-6, wherein the radical precursor has a concentration in the feed water of 0.00001 ppm to 300,000 ppm.

[0075] Aspect 8 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-7, wherein the radical precursor has a concentration in the feed water of 0.01 ppm to 1,000 ppm.

[0076] Aspect 9 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-8, wherein the contacting of the galvanic cell with the feed water forms radicals from the radical precursor.

[0077] Aspect 10 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-9, wherein the emission of the UV light into the feed water forms radicals from the radical precursor.

[0078] Aspect 11 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-10, wherein the contacting of the galvanic cell with the feed water forms radicals from the radical precursor and the emission of the UV light into the feed water forms radicals from the radical precursor.

[0079] Aspect 12 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-11, wherein the contacting of the galvanic cell with the feed water and the emission of the UV light into the feed water occurs simultaneously.

[0080] Aspect 13 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-12, wherein the contacting of the galvanic cell with the feed water and the emission of the UV light into the feed water occurs sequentially.

[0081] Aspect 14 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-13, wherein the vessel comprises a plurality of the galvanic cells.

[0082] Aspect 15 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-13, wherein the vessel comprises one and not more than one galvanic cell.

[0083] Aspect 16 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-15, wherein the galvanic cell comprises an anode and a cathode, wherein the cathode has a different composition than the anode and a more positive standard electrode potential than the anode, and wherein: the anode and the cathode independently comprise lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, radium, aluminum, gallium, indium, tin, thallium, lead, bismuth, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, lanthanum, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, lutetium, carbon (e.g., graphite, graphene, glassy carbon, carbon nanotubes), an alloy thereof, or a combination thereof; or the anode comprises Mg, Al, Fe, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, V, Ce, an alloy thereof, or a combination thereof and the cathode comprises Al, Zn, Fe, Cd, Ni, Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Co, Mn, Pd, Ag, an alloy thereof, or a combination thereof; or the anode comprises Al, Mg, Zn, Fe, an alloy thereof, or a combination thereof and the cathode comprises Cu.

[0084] Aspect 17 provides the method of Aspect 16, wherein the galvanic cell comprises physical contact between the anode and the cathode, or wherein the anode and the cathode are free of physical contact with one another.

[0085] Aspect 18 provides the method of Aspect 17, wherein the anode and the cathode each have a planar form, or wherein the anode and the cathode each have a rod-shaped form. [0086] Aspect 19 provides the method of any one of Aspects 16-18, wherein the anode and the cathode each have a planar form, wherein the anode and cathode are arranged with a major face of each parallel to one another with a gap therebetween, wherein the anode and the cathode are free of physical contact with one another.

[0087] Aspect 20 provides the method of Aspect 19, wherein the gap is 2 mm to 30 mm.

[0088] Aspect 21 provides the method of Aspect 19, wherein the gap is 1 mm to about

110 mm.

[0089] Aspect 22 provides the method of any one of Aspects 16-21, wherein the anode comprises Mg, Al, or a combination thereof.

[0090] Aspect 23 provides the method of any one of Aspects 16-22, wherein the anode comprises a plate or a rod. [0091] Aspect 24 provides the method of any one of Aspects 16-23, wherein the anode comprises a planar non-porous form or a rod-shaped non-porous form.

[0092] Aspect 25 provides the method of any one of Aspects 16-24, wherein the cathode comprises Cu.

[0093] Aspect 26 provides the method of any one of Aspects 16-25, wherein the cathode comprises a planar non-porous form, a planar porous form, a rod-shaped porous form (e.g., a porous rod), or a rod-shaped non-porous form (e.g., a solid rod).

[0094] Aspect 27 provides the method of any one of Aspects 16-26, wherein the cathode comprises a wire mesh or a solid rod.

[0095] Aspect 28 provides the method of any one of Aspects 16-27, wherein the cathode comprises Cu and the anode comprises Mg.

[0096] Aspect 29 provides the method of any one of Aspects 16-28, wherein the cathode comprises Cu and the anode comprises Al.

[0097] Aspect 30 provides the method of any one of Aspects 16-29, wherein the galvanic cell further comprises a connector that physically connects the anode and the cathode.

[0098] Aspect 31 provides the method of Aspect 30, wherein the connector comprises weld, a fastener, a fastener assembly, a threaded fastener, a screw, a bolt, a bracket, a nut, a washer, a plate or disc that includes one or more through-holes for the anode or cathode, or a combination thereof.

[0099] Aspect 32 provides the method of any one of Aspects 30-31, wherein the connector is a non-conductive connector.

[0100] Aspect 33 provides the method of Aspect 32, wherein the connector comprises plastic, glass, rubber, or a combination thereof, and/or wherein the connector comprises a conductive connector coated with a non-conductive material.

[0101] Aspect 34 provides the method of any one of Aspects 30-31, wherein the connector is a conductive connector.

[0102] Aspect 35 provides the method of Aspect 34, wherein the conductive connector comprises Cu, Zn, Fe, Cd, Ni, Sn, Pb, or a combination thereof.

[0103] Aspect 36 provides the method of Aspect 35, wherein the conductive connector comprises brass. [0104] Aspect 37 provides the method of any one of Aspects 30-36, wherein the galvanic cell comprises a plurality of the connectors.

[0105] Aspect 38 provides the method of any one of Aspects 30-36, wherein the galvanic cell comprises one and not more than one connector.

[0106] Aspect 39 provides the method of any one of Aspects 30-38, wherein the connector maintains a gap between the anode and the cathode, such as a continuous gap or a local gap.

[0107] Aspect 40 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-39, wherein the vessel comprises a plurality of the UV-light sources.

[0108] Aspect 41 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-39, wherein the vessel comprises one and not more than one UV-light source.

[0109] Aspect 42 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-41, wherein the UV-light source comprises an enclosure comprising a UV-light bulb, wherein the enclosure is transparent or translucent to UV light.

[0110] Aspect 43 provides the method of Aspect 42, wherein the enclosure comprises the UV-light bulb within an interior of the enclosure.

[0111] Aspect 44 provides the method of any one of Aspects 42-43, wherein the enclosure is immersed within the feed water in the vessel.

[0112] Aspect 45 provides the method of any one of Aspects 42-44, wherein the enclosure comprises a plurality of the UV-light bulbs.

[0113] Aspect 46 provides the method of any one of Aspects 42-44, wherein the enclosure comprises one and not more than one UV-light bulb.

[0114] Aspect 47 provides the method of any one of Aspects 42-46, wherein the enclosure is substantially water-tight and prevents water in the vessel from passing through the enclosure.

[0115] Aspect 48 provides the method of any one of Aspects 42-47, wherein the enclosure comprises synthetic fused silica, fused quartz, borosilicate optical glass, glass, polystyrene, or a combination thereof.

[0116] Aspect 49 provides the method of any one of Aspects 42-48, wherein the UV- light source emits UV light having a frequency of 254 nm or less into the feed water. [0117] Aspect 50 provides the method of any one of Aspects 42-49, wherein the UV- light source emits UV light having a frequency of 100 nm to 254 nm into the feed water.

[0118] Aspect 51 provides the method of any one of Aspects 42-50, wherein the enclosure has the form of a tube.

[0119] Aspect 52 provides the method of Aspect 51 , wherein the tube is free of bends within the vessel.

[0120] Aspect 53 provides the method of Aspect 52, wherein the vessel comprises a plurality of tubes free of bends within the vessel, each tube comprising one or more of the UV- light bulbs.

[0121] Aspect 54 provides the method of any one of Aspects 42-51, wherein the tube comprises one or more bends within the vessel.

[0122] Aspect 55 provides the method of Aspect 54, wherein the tube comprises one or more bends within the vessel and comprises more than one straight section within the vessel. [0123] Aspect 56 provides the method of any one of Aspects 42-55, wherein the enclosure has the form of a plate.

[0124] Aspect 57 provides the method of any one of Aspects 42-51, wherein the enclosure comprises a wall of the vessel, wherein the UV-light source emits the UV light through the wall of the vessel into the feed water.

[0125] Aspect 58 provides the method of Aspect 42-51, wherein the vessel comprises a UV-reflective wall that reflects UV light toward the feed water in the vessel. The UV-reflective wall can be outside the feed water or immersed in the feed water.

[0126] Aspect 59 provides the method of Aspect 58, wherein the UV-reflective wall comprises Ag, Au, Cu, Al, Pd, Pt, or a combination thereof.

[0127] Aspect 60 provides the method of any one of Aspects 42-59, wherein the enclosure has transmittance to UV radiation having a wavelength of 254 nm or less.

[0128] Aspect 61 provides the method of any one of Aspects 42-60, wherein the UV- light bulb comprises an Xei bulb, KrCh bulb, LP-Hg bulb, Xe arc bulb, a MP-Hg bulb, an LED bulb, or a combination thereof.

[0129] Aspect 62 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-61, wherein the method generates a concentration of radicals in the product water of 0.00001 ppm to 300,000 ppm. [0130] Aspect 63 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-62, wherein the method generates a concentration of radicals in the product water of 0.01 ppm to 1,000 ppm.

[0131] Aspect 64 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-63, wherein the method generates OH radicals in the product water.

[0132] Aspect 65 provides the method of Aspect 64, wherein the product water has a concentration of OH radicals of 0.00001 ppm to 300,000 ppm.

[0133] Aspect 66 provides the method of any one of Aspects 64-65, wherein the product water has a concentration of OH radicals of 0.01 ppm to 1,000 ppm.

[0134] Aspect 67 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-66, wherein the method generates SO4' radicals (sulfate radical anions) and/or SO (sulfite radical anions) in the product water.

[0135] Aspect 68 provides the method of Aspect 67, wherein the product water has a concentration of SO4' radicals of 0.00001 ppm to 300,000 ppm.

[0136] Aspect 69 provides the method of any one of Aspects 67-68, wherein the product water has a concentration of SO4' radicals of 0.01 ppm to 1,000 ppm.

[0137] Aspect 70 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-69, wherein the product water has a higher radical concentration than the feed water.

[0138] Aspect 71 provides the method of any one of Aspects 1-70, wherein the feed water comprises fresh water, water from a natural source of water in the environment, drinking water, industrial waste-water, industrial cooling water, pond water, lake water, river water, stream water, ocean water, or a combination thereof.

[0139] Aspect 72 provides a method of treating water, the method comprising: flowing feed water comprising a radical precursor through a vessel, the radical precursor comprising HOOH and optionally further comprising O3, S20s', I’, CCh ² ', HCCh', H2PO4', HPO4 ² ', PO4 ³ ’, HSOs', or a combination thereof, the vessel comprising a galvanic cell, and a UV-light source that emits light having a wavelength of 254 nm or less, to contact the galvanic cell with the feed water and such that the UV-light source emits UV light into the feed water, to form product water; and flowing the product water out of the vessel. [0140] Aspect 73 provides a water treatment device for carrying out the method of any one of Aspects 1-72.

[0141] Aspect 74 provides a water treatment device comprising: a vessel comprising a galvanic cell, and a UV-light source; wherein the galvanic cell is configured to contact feed water flowed through the vessel and the UV-light source is configured to emit UV light into the feed water flowed through the vessel.

[0142] Aspect 75 provides the water treatment device of Aspect 74, wherein the galvanic cell is configured to contact the feed water flowed through the vessel at the same time as the UV- light source emits UV light into the feed water flowed through the vessel.

[0143] Aspect 76 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 74-75, wherein the galvanic cell is configured to contact the feed water flowed through the vessel before, after, or a combination thereof, as the UV-light source emits UV light into the feed water flowed through the vessel.

[0144] Aspect 77 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 74-76, wherein the vessel comprises a plurality of the galvanic cells.

[0145] Aspect 78 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 74-76, wherein the vessel comprises one and not more than one galvanic cell.

[0146] Aspect 79 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 74-78, wherein the galvanic cell comprises an anode comprising Mg, Al, Fe, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, V, Ce, or a combination thereof; and a cathode having a different composition than the anode, the cathode comprising Al, Zn, Fe, Cd, Ni, Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Co, Mn, Pd, Ag, or a combination thereof.

[0147] Aspect 80 provides the water treatment device of Aspect 79, wherein the galvanic cell comprises physical contact between the anode and the cathode.

[0148] Aspect 81 provides the water treatment device of Aspect 80, wherein the anode and the cathode each have a planar form. [0149] Aspect 82 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 79-81, wherein the anode and the cathode each have a planar form, wherein the anode and cathode are arranged with a major face of each parallel to one another with a gap therebetween, wherein the anode and the cathode are free of physical contact with one another; or wherein the anode and the cathode each have a rod-shaped non-porous form and the galvanic cell comprises a connector comprising a plate or disc that includes one or more through-holes for the anode and/or cathode, wherein the anode and the cathode comprise a gap therebetween (e.g., a continuous gap, or a local gap).

[0150] Aspect 83 provides the water treatment device of Aspect 82, wherein the gap is 2 mm to 30 mm.

[0151] Aspect 84 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 82-83, wherein the gap is 1 mm to about 110 mm.

[0152] Aspect 85 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 79-84, wherein the anode comprises Mg, Al, or a combination thereof.

[0153] Aspect 86 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 79-85, wherein the anode comprises a plate.

[0154] Aspect 87 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 79-86, wherein the anode comprises a planar non-porous form.

[0155] Aspect 88 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 79-87, wherein the cathode comprises Cu.

[0156] Aspect 89 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 79-88, wherein the cathode comprises a planar non-porous form or a planar porous form.

[0157] Aspect 90 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 79-89, wherein the cathode comprises a wire mesh.

[0158] Aspect 91 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 79-90, wherein the cathode comprises Cu and the anode comprises Mg.

[0159] Aspect 92 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 79-91, wherein the cathode comprises Cu and the anode comprises Al.

[0160] Aspect 93 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 79-92, wherein the galvanic cell further comprises a connector that physically connects the anode and the cathode. [0161] Aspect 94 provides the water treatment device of Aspect 93, wherein the connector comprises weld, a fastener, a fastener assembly, a threaded fastener, a screw, a bolt, a bracket, a nut, a washer, a plate or disc including one or more through-holes for the anode and/or cathode, or a combination thereof.

[0162] Aspect 95 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 93-94, wherein the connector is a non-conductive connector.

[0163] Aspect 96 provides the water treatment device of Aspect 95, wherein the connector comprises plastic, glass, rubber, or a combination thereof, and/or wherein the connector comprises a conductive connector coated with a non-conductive material.

[0164] Aspect 97 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 93-94, wherein the connector is a conductive connector.

[0165] Aspect 98 provides the water treatment device of Aspect 97, wherein the conductive connector comprises Cu, Zn, Fe, Cd, Ni, Sn, Pb, or a combination thereof.

[0166] Aspect 99 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 97-98, wherein the conductive connector comprises brass.

[0167] Aspect 100 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 93-99, wherein the galvanic cell comprises a plurality of the connectors.

[0168] Aspect 101 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 93-99, wherein the galvanic cell comprises one and not more than one connector.

[0169] Aspect 102 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 93-101, wherein the connector maintains a gap between the anode and the cathode.

[0170] Aspect 103 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 79-102, wherein the vessel comprises a plurality of the UV-light sources.

[0171] Aspect 104 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 79-102, wherein the vessel comprises one and not more than one UV-light source.

[0172] Aspect 105 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 79-104, wherein the UV-light source comprises an enclosure comprising a UV-light bulb, wherein the enclosure is transparent or translucent to UV light.

[0173] Aspect 106 provides the water treatment device of Aspect 105, wherein the enclosure comprises the UV-light bulb within an interior of the enclosure. [0174] Aspect 107 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 105-106, wherein the enclosure is configured to be immersed within the feed water flowed into the enclosure.

[0175] Aspect 108 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 105-107, wherein the enclosure comprises a plurality of the UV-light bulbs.

[0176] Aspect 109 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 105-107, wherein the enclosure comprises one and not more than one UV-light bulb.

[0177] Aspect 110 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 105-109, wherein the enclosure is substantially water-tight and prevents water in the vessel from passing through the enclosure.

[0178] Aspect 111 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 105-110, wherein the enclosure comprises synthetic fused silica, fused quartz, borosilicate optical glass, glass, polystyrene, or a combination thereof.

[0179] Aspect 112 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 105-111, wherein the UV-light source emits UV light having a frequency of 254 nm or less into the feed water.

[0180] Aspect 113 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 105-112, wherein the UV-light source emits UV light having a frequency of 100 nm to 254 nm into the feed water.

[0181] Aspect 114 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 105-113, wherein the enclosure has the form of a tube.

[0182] Aspect 115 provides the water treatment device of Aspect 114, wherein the tube is free of bends within the vessel.

[0183] Aspect 116 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 114-115, wherein the vessel comprises a plurality of tubes free of bends within the vessel, each tube comprising one or more of the UV-light bulbs.

[0184] Aspect 117 provides the water treatment device of Aspect 114, wherein the tube comprises one or more bends within the vessel.

[0185] Aspect 118 provides the water treatment device of Aspect 117, wherein the tube comprises one or more bends within the vessel and comprises more than one straight section within the vessel. [0186] Aspect 119 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 105-118, wherein the enclosure has the form of a plate.

[0187] Aspect 120 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 105-114, wherein the enclosure comprises a wall of the vessel, wherein the UV-light source emits the UV light through the wall of the vessel into the feed water.

[0188] Aspect 121 provides the water treatment device of Aspect 120, wherein the vessel comprises a UV-reflective wall, wherein the UV-light source is between the UV-reflective wall and the enclosure, such that UV light is reflected by the UV-reflective wall toward the feed water in the vessel.

[0189] Aspect 122 provides the water treatment device of Aspect 121, wherein the UV- reflective wall comprises Ag, Au, Cu, Al, Pd, Pt, or a combination thereof.

[0190] Aspect 123 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 105-122, wherein the enclosure has transmittance to UV radiation having a wavelength of 254 nm or less. [0191] Aspect 124 provides the water treatment device of any one of Aspects 105-123, wherein the UV-light bulb comprises an Xe2 excimer bulb, a KrCh excimer bulb, a LP-Hg bulb, a Xe arc bulb, a MP-Hg bulb, an LED bulb, or a combination thereof.

[0192] Aspect 125 provides a water treatment device comprising: a vessel comprising a galvanic cell, and a UV-light source that emits light having a wavelength of 254 nm or less, wherein the galvanic cell is configured to contact feed water flowed through the vessel and the UV-light source is configured to emit UV light into the feed water flowed through the vessel.

[0193] Aspect 126 provides a water treatment device comprising: a vessel comprising a galvanic cell comprising a cathode comprising Cu and an anode comprising Al, Mg, or a combination thereof, a enclosure that has transmittance of light having a wavelength of 254 nm or less, wherein the galvanic cell is inside the enclosure, and a UV-light source that emits light having a wavelength of 254 nm or less, wherein the UV-light source is outside of the enclosure, wherein the galvanic cell is configured to contact feed water flowed into the enclosure in the vessel and the UV-light source is configured to emit UV light into the feed water flowed into the enclosure in the vessel.

[0194] Aspect 127 provides the method or device of any one or any combination of Aspects 1-126 optionally configured such that all elements or options recited are available to use or select from.