PURIFICATION METHOD

The present invention relates to a process for removing one or more substances from a starting material comprising a metal, semi-metal, metal compound or semi-metal compound, by means of a chemical reagent, wherein said starting material is in the form of fine particles and preferably nanoparticles. More especially, the invention relates to the production of high purity silicon from nanoparticles of silica, silicates and/or metallurgical grade silicon. Silicon is used widely in the electronics industry, for example in the production of semiconductors, integrated circuits and photovoltaic cells (also known as solar cells). In general, high levels of purity are required, the precise purity level depending upon the ultimate application. Typically, the purity of photovoltaic grade silicon (at least 99.9999%) is lower than electronic grade silicon (>99.9999999%) and critical impurities requiring removal include the first row transition elements such as V, Cr, Fe ₁ Co, Mn, Ni and Ti, as well as Al, B, P, Zr, Nb, Mo, Ta, W and O. Inclusion of the afore-mentioned impurities has a serious detrimental effect on the performance of silicon-based devices, including solar cells, where the conversion efficiency of light to electricity is reduced. Silicon is produced industrially by a two stage process. In the first stage, quartz is thermally reduced to low cost, metallurgical grade silicon having a typical purity of only 99.5 to 99.9%. In the second stage, the metallurgical grade silicon is further purified, usually by the Siemens process. In the Siemens process, the metallurgical grade silicon is first converted to a chorosilane, and then heated to deposit a higher purity silicon. This second, purification stage adds considerably to the cost of the final silicon product, as do further processing stages which may also be required to incorporate dopants into semiconductor grade silicon.

At present, there is no specific production process for intermediate grade, photovoltaic silicon, so solar cells are produced from expensive feedstock silicon. The availability of moderately pure silicon for solar cell fabrication is a highly desirable objective and hence, the market in solar cells is waiting to exploit high volumes of photovoltaic grade silicon made by an alternative, lower cost process.

Accordingly, a first aspect of the present invention provides a method for removing one or more substances from a starting material comprising a metal, a semi-metal, a metal compound or a semi-metal compound, said method comprising the steps of mixing fine particles of said starting material with a reagent Y and heating the starting material so as to effect a diffusion interface between the starting material and the reagent Y such that the one or more substances migrate from the starting material to reagent Y, thereby producing purer metal or semi-metal particles.

By fine particles is meant particles having a size in the order of 100 microns or less. Preferably the fine particles are nanoparticles by nanoparticles is meant particles having nanometric dimensions, and nanoparticles may have, for example, dimensions in the order of a few nanometres to several hundred nanometres. Nanoparticles may be spherical or aspherical, and may also be known as a nanopowder or as a nanometric material. The metal or semi-metal particles used as a starting material in the present invention include particles of metal and/or semi-metal alloys.

By semi-metal is meant a chemical element which is intermediate in properties between metals and non-metals, including B, Si, Ge, As, Sb and Te. These elements are sometimes also known as metalloids. Preferably, reagent Y is selected from a gettering agent, a reducing agent or a combination thereof. In certain cases, reagent Y may act both as a gettering agent and a reducing agent.

In a particularly preferred embodiment of the invention, the starting material comprises a metal or semi-metal, preferably a semi-metal selected from the group consisting of B, Si, Ge, As, Sb and Te, more preferably silicon and even more preferably metallurgical grade silicon (MG-Si). In any of the aforementioned cases, the one or more substances to be removed comprises residual metallic and/or non-metallic impurities within said metal or semi-metal and the product of the process is a metal or semi-metal having a higher degree of purity than the starting material.

In another preferred embodiment of the invention, the starting material comprises a compound of the metal or semi-metal, such as, for example, an oxide, nitride or sulphide. More preferably, the starting material is a compound of

a semi-metal selected from the group consisting of B, Si, Ge, As, Sb and Te, and even more preferably the starting material is a silicon compound. Silica is one of the most abundant minerals on earth and is therefore a highly desirable starting material for silicon fabrication. Thus, for silicon fabrication, the starting material preferably comprises silica, but may alternatively comprise a silicate.

In the above case, the one or more substances to be removed includes the co-bonded element (i.e. oxygen for an oxide, nitrogen for a nitride, sulphur for a sulphide etc) as well as residual metallic and/or non-metallic impurities.

In either of the above embodiments, removal of the one or more substances from the starting material is brought about by using a chemical reagent Y, which reagent is in contact with or coated onto particles of the starting material and can take a solid form. Upon heating the contacted particles, the one or more substances migrate from the starting material to reagent Y, by a combination of physical and chemical processes, and the resulting product comprises purified metal or semi-metal particles contacted or coated with reagent Y and by-products containing the one or more substances. Reagent Y and byproducts can then be removed in a further step, thereby producing a pure powder product. Possible methods of removing reagent Y will be well known to the skilled person and include aqueous dissolution and acid etching. The present invention enables a purified metal or semi-metal to be produced either from a less pure metal or semi-metal starting material, or directly from a metal or semi-metal compound. In the specific case of silicon, photovoltaic grade silicon can be produced directly from metallurgical grade silicon, thereby circumventing costly prior art processes. Alternatively, the method of the invention allows silicon to be produced from a variety of other starting materials, such as, for example, silicon having a purity other than metallurgical grade, silica, silicates and other silicon-containing compounds. Of course, the degree of purification need not be limited to photovoltaic grade silicon and the process can be manipulated so as to purify silicon and/or silicon-containing compounds to electronic grade silicon or intermediate purity levels.

In general, purification processes can proceed by a number of different mechanisms, examples being recrystallisation, chemical reaction and diffusion. The present inventors have realised that, by using a starting material in the form

of fine particles, purification can proceed by a number of different routes simultaneously, namely classical diffusion of impurities from areas of high concentration to areas of lower concentration, gettering of crystal defects and impurities associated therewith to the nanoparticle's surface and, in the case of a metal or semi-metal compound, reduction to the metal or semi-metal. All of the afore-mentioned processes proceed more rapidly and efficiently where diffusion distances are short and the surface area is large. Thus, the invention is able to take advantage of a fine powder's inherent physical properties (small particle size and large surface area), leading to a lower cost and more efficient method than the prior art.

Another benefit of the present invention is that the product is in the form of a powder, which powder can be further processed by any suitable powder processing techniques (e.g. casting). Moreover, because the product is in a purified form prior to casting, the need for post-casting purification steps is ameliorated.

If the starting material is a metal or semi-metal compound, it may be desirable to conduct the purification process in two stages, each stage individually involving the method of the present invention. For example, it may be advantageous to reduce the compound to a metal or semi-metal having an intermediate purity in a first stage, remove reagent Y, add more reagent Y and then further purify the metal or semi-metal produced by the first stage. Reagent Y may comprise different materials at each stage, for example a first reagent Y may be specially selected for its reducing properties and a second reagent Y may be specially selected for its gettering properties. It may also be necessary to replace a contaminated first reagent Y with clean reagent Y, so as to achieve the desired purity level in the final product.

In some instances, it may be necessary to pre-process the starting material to obtain a suitable starting purity level. In the particular case of reducing silica to silicon, it may be preferable to include a pre-purification step whereby crude silica ore is first converted to a water soluble silicate (e.g. sodium silicate) or silicic acid and then subjected to water treatment processes such as ultrafiltration or ion-exchange. The purified silicate or silica can then be deposited from solution by known methods and subjected to the method of the invention.

As stated above, the purpose of reagent Y is to remove one or more substances from the starting material. If the starting material substantially comprises a metal compound or semi-metal compound MX, the one or more substances to be removed includes X and may also include residual metallic and/or non-metallic impurities. Thus, the process is a combined extraction and purification process and reagent Y is required to function both as a reducing agent for compound MX and as a gettering agent for impurities. If, on the other hand, the starting material substantially comprises a metal or semi-metal, the one or more compounds substantially comprise the above-mentioned residual impurities and reagent Y acts primarily as a gettering agent. In either case, X and/or the residual impurities diffuse out from the individual nanoparticles towards reagent Y and may be retained within the contacting of interface/coating layer and/or released as an evolved gas.

Examples of residual impurities include the first row transition elements such as V, Cr, Fe, Co, Mn, Ni and Ti, as well as Al, B, P, Zr, Nb ₁ Mo, Ta, W and O. Typically X comprises O, N or S.

Preferably, reagent Y is in intimate contact with the nanoparticles of the starting material. This may be in the form of nanoparticles in contact with a gas or liquid or possibly as discrete nanoparticles of Y coated onto the surface of the starting material, but more preferably as a continuous coating, i.e. a shell of reagent Y coated onto the surface of individual nanoparticles. Any suitable contacting or coating method may be used, such as powder mixing, vapour deposition or melt deposition fluidised beds, sols or gels. For some solid forms of reagent Y. The required coating depth depends on the application, but typically lies in the range monatomic, or 0.1 to 10 nm, more preferably 1 to 5 nm.

The amount of reagent Y used in the process depends on the precise application, i.e. whether reagent Y is acting primarily as a gettering agent for residual impurities, or whether reagent Y is also required to reduce a metal or semi-metal compound. In the former case, reagent Y is typically present at 1-2 wt%. In the latter case, reagent Y needs to be present in an amount dictated by the stoichiometry of the reduction reaction taking place, and preferably in a slight excess.

A gettering agent is a material which is added in small amounts during a chemical or metallurgical process to absorb impurities. Gettering agents are commonly metals which are more electropositive than the impurities to be removed, but are not exclusively so. In the semiconductor industry, gettering agents such as aluminium are used to remove impurities from bulk silicon wafers by coating one surface of said wafer with the agent. Typically, the coated surface remains an integral part of the silicon wafer and may even act as part of the semiconductor device. Similarly, in the photovoltaic industry, aluminium is sometimes incorporated into the metallisation layers of the photovoltaic cell, the metal combination being annealed to getter oxygen and other impurities out of the semiconductor material. This improves carrier lifetime and cell efficiency.

In the present invention, the gettering agent may be selected from known gettering materials such as aluminium, magnesium, zinc, carbon, sodium, calcium, lithium, potassium, hydrogen, sucrose or sodium chloride or a combination thereof, but, in contrast to use in the electronics industry, the gettering agent is preferably removed from the purified nanoparticles in a further processing step, thereby producing a pure metal or semi-metal powder for casting etc.

The nanoparticles are heated in order to increase the rate of the various purification processes taking place in the starting material. The preferred process temperature depends on the precise purification process taking place, but, for best results, the temperature typically lies in the range 600 to 1700 ⁰ C, more preferably 800 to 1200 ⁰ C. Advantageously, the heating step is carried out in an inert atmosphere so as to prevent side-reactions. The nanoparticles are heated for a length of time sufficient for migration of the one or more substances to take place and the nanoparticles to reach the desired purity level.

The nanoparticles of the starting material may be produced by any suitable method. Examples are ball-milling, deposition from a sol-gel or plasma deposition. Preferably, the nanoparticles are produced by a plasma-based method and more preferably by a plasma-spray method. Plasma techniques are preferred because firstly, they are particularly suitable for forming nanoparticles having the desired physical properties and secondly, the plasma apparatus can

be used to co-deposit reagent Y during nanoparticle synthesis, either within the plasma region itself or during the quenching stage.

The nanoparticles are preferably as small as possible so as to maximise surface area and minimise diffusion distances, thereby optimising the reaction time and efficiency. Advantageously, the nanoparticles lie in the size range 1 to

200 nm, more preferably in the range 5 to 100 nm and even more preferably in the range 10 to 50 nm.

In a second aspect of the present invention there is provided a method of purifying a metal or a semi-metal comprising the steps of mixing metal or semi- metal nanoparticles with a gettering agent and heating the nanoparticles so as to effect a diffusion interface between the starting material and the gettering agent such that residual impurities migrate from the nanoparticle to the gettering agent.

In a third aspect of the present invention there is provided a method of producing a metal or semi-metal M from a metal compound or semi-metal compound MX comprising the steps of mixing fine particles of the metal or semi- metal compound with a reducing agent and heating them so as to effect a diffusion interface between the particles and the reducing agent such that X migrates to the reducing agent and the metal or semi-metal M is produced.

In a fourth aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of producing photovoltaic grade silicon, said method comprising the steps of mixing fine particles of metallurgical grade silicon with a gettering agent and heating the fine particles so as to effect a diffusion interface -between the fine particles and the gettering agent such that impurities migrate from the silicon nanoparticles to the gettering agent. Preferably, reagent Y is removed in a further processing step so as to produce purified silicon powder.

An aspect of the invention, provides the purification or de-oxidation process may be achieved involving a reaction on a solid particle of the starting material to be purified and reagent Y in a fluid phase, including liquid, gaseous or plasma state.

It can be readily seen that both the second and third means above relate to the same reactions as described for the first means, as hereinbefore described. In all the above means and aspects the use of a high temperature plasma is preferred.

Consequently it may be readily understood that in such a reaction in the presence of high temperatures and rapid changes between the 4 states of matter there will be reactions occurring that accord with all the three means herein described. Indeed the proportion of material yielded by said reaction which is due to each means described may vary with the physical and chemical parameters of the starting material and of reagent Y.

Specific embodiments of the present invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which: Figure 1 is a schematic representation of the production of photovoltaic grade silicon from metallurgical grade silicon according to the invention;

Figure 2 is a schematic representation of the production of photovoltaic grade silicon from silica or a silicate according to the invention; and

Figure 3 is a further schematic representation of particles undergoing the purification process according to the invention.

Figure 1 is a schematic representation of the production of photovoltaic grade silicon from metallurgical grade silicon. In the process, a nanoparticle of metallurgical grade silicon MG-Si is placed in contact with or coated with a gettering agent Y and then heated such that impurities I ⁺ migrate to the gettering agent Y. After the nanoparticle has been heated for a suitable duration, the contaminated interface comprises gettering agent and impurities Y(I) is removed from the nanoparticle, leaving behind photovoltaic grade silicon PVG-Si as the reaction product.

Figure 2 is a schematic representation of the production of photovoltaic grade silicon from silica or a silicate. In the process, a silica or silicate nanoparticle Si[O] _n is first placed in contact/coated with a reducing agent R and the coated nanoparticle is then heated such that impurities I ⁺ and oxygen [O] migrate to the reducing agent R. After the nanoparticle has been heated for a suitable duration, the contaminated interface comprising reducing agent and impurities R[O]+(I) is removed from the nanoparticle, leaving behind photovoltaic grade silicon PVG-Si as the reaction product.

Referring to figure 3 there is shown a schematic diagram of a reaction process using a plasma reaction phase in which mixed starting materials are

ionised and heated in a plasma device. In one example impure silica is powdered into a nanoparticle form and mixed with flaked aluminium which will act as reducing agent. The powder blend is vapourised in a plasma generator to a temperature in excess of 2000C and possibly as high as 10,00OC. The reactants are held in this form for at least several seconds (and possibly as long as one or two minutes) and the temperture reduced to an ambient temperature to allow the reactants to condense back to solid. The reactants are reheated to about 800C for a further hour before again cooling further. Then using an acid etch to remove the contaminated reagent thereby leaving a purer form of silicon which can then be washed ready for further use.

Some more specific examples will now be given wherein the materials used are as follows.

Samples of fumed silica from Degussa (aerosol R974) and a second sample supplied b; Alfa Aesar are used in the examples below. Samples of Sodium Silicate were derive< from a solution of sodium silicate (water glass) supplied by BDH and having a SiO; assay of 25.5-28.5% and Na2O of 7.5% to 8.5%. Metallic impurities were in the order c 0.01 % comprising 0.005% iron alone. It was found using ICPMS analysis that subjectini this solution, or one with reduced pH with HCI, to mixing for one hour with a WAC (weal anionic complex) ion exchange resin, Amberlite IRC-86, resulted in significant reductioi of impurity levels, thus taking the feedstock silicate from nominally 99.99% purity to om of 99.9999% purity. The resulting solution was dried out at 200 ⁰ C and milled into i coarse powder. Alternatively, a second solution was spray dried into a fine powder c ~100 microns size without the need for milling.

These samples were then subjected to reaction to cause a chemical reduction with thi samples remaining in the solid state in finely divided form to allow advantageous mixini with other reagents and a high surface area for reaction.

Example 1.

The reaction stoichiometry means that 5 grams of silica ( 0.0833 moles) requires 1.25 mole equivalent or 2.81 g of aluminium. In fact 2.6 grams of aluminium was used as th

fine flake material and mixed thoroughly with the silica by shaking in a stoppered glas: vessel. The mixed powder took on a light grey appearance apart from small lumps c agglomerated silica. The mixed powder was added to quartz crucible and heated in ; nitrogen atmosphere in a box furnace at a ramp rate of 5OC per minute. The reactioi time was started when at the reaction temperature of 800°.C was reached.

After one hour the sample was cooled at ~50°C per minute to 100 ⁰ C under a nitrogei purge and removed from the crucible. The material was substantially blackened am particles were adhered together. Some of the silica remained as unreacted lumps fron the agglomerate seen at the outset of reaction. Observations in an optical microscopi showed there to be white grains of unreacted silica remaining in the mixture and blac particles of silicon. Analysis using x-ray diffraction showed the presence c microcrystalline silicon in the mixture. Unreacted silica appeared to exist owing t< absence of an intimate contact forming with aluminium flakes and its molten phase.

Example 2.

A sample of the Degussa fumed silica and a second sample from Alfa Aesar were eacl added to a slight excess to aluminium metal flake and were each separately reduced ti silicon over a period of one hour at 900 ⁰ C. The same reaction product occurred as ii example 1.

Example 3.

Aluminium metal flake was added to each of the silica samples separately and heated fc a period of one hour at 650 °C using the conditions of examples 1 and 2. The produc appeared substantially unreacted, mostly comprising white silica powder and aluminiur microspheres.

Example 4.

A sample of the Degussa fumed silica and a second sample from Alfa Aesar were eac added as a slight excess to surface oxide passivated aluminium nanoparticles produce' by QinetiQ NanoMaterials Ltd, mixed as before and heated to 800 °C using the condition of example 1 , 2 and 3.

The resulting powder was unreacted owing to a surface layer of oxide present on thi nano powdered aluminium. The conclusion was that the reaction proceeds by intimat contact between molten aluminium and the silica particles.

Example 5.

Coarsely milled sodium silicate sample was mixed by shaking together with aluminiur flake in the molar ratio 1 :1.25 respectively. The mixture was heated to 800 ⁰ C for oni hour in nitrogen. The cooled sample had become blackened, with some remaining lump of white powder. The sample of sodium silicate that had been spray dried to a fine powder and subjected to reaction with aluminium flake at 800°C was substantiall blackened and there was no evidence of unreacted material. X ray diffraction on thi powder showed it to substantially comprise microcrystalline silicon.

Example 6. Replacing aluminium with magnesium turnings provided a more effective reaction z 800 ⁰ C for 1 hour, even though mixing was poor with the magnesium ribbon and it surface was oxidised. The fact that magnesium above its melting point has substantially higher vapour pressure than aluminium enables the oxide layer to becom< circumvented and for vapour to provide a more effective mixing with the surroundin silica provided a purge gas prevented oxidation of the magnesium vapour and the ga did not flush out the vapour from the reaction environment. The reaction temperatur occurred above 75O ⁰ C, suggesting that the rate limiting step is caused by the rate of oui diffusion of oxygen from the silica or silicate chemical species. Whilst reaction has bee observed at 700 ⁰ C in the case of magnesium, for practical purposes the reaction appear to be optimised for temperature above 800 ⁰ C.

The metal used in metallothermic reduction seemed to be dependent on the nativ reducing power of the metal and its ability to provide adequate contact with the particle to be chemically reduced or so called de-oxidation. Reaction rate was in accordance wit increasing temperature.

The fact that silica remains below its melting temperature means that it reacts in the soli state and that the reaction is driven by interfacial contact area. Therefore adequat

mixing is necessary for the reaction to be stoichiometric and to go to completion However, one advantage of the present method is that mixing and interfacial area o reagents is significantly improved over reactions in the molten or liquid states. Witr improved control, unwanted side reaction and secondary phases are prevented, fo example formation of metal suicides to unreacted oxides in the examples cited for silicon. It was not possible to use zinc the undergo reaction with silica or silicate owing to the lower electronegativity of this metal with respect to reaction with oxides unde conventional reaction conditions normally covering the range 1-2000 ⁰ C. The reaction ii limited to the redox potential of the reducing metal. However, should the reagent become one of silicon tetrachloride or other halogenated or hydrogenated reaction intermediate; from silica or silicate, then it remains feasible to use metals such as zinc.

Thus, a reaction with reducing metal is possible to reduce silica or silicate chemica species in the temperature range 600 to 2000 ⁰ C or preferably in the range 800-1000 ⁰ C for a period of time from 1 -1000 minutes, but preferably in the range 10 to 100 minutes.

For reactions conducted in plasma, such as exists in the plasma torch apparatui operated by QinetiQ Nanomaterials Ltd, herein described, reagent temperatures an raised to approximately 10,000 ⁰ C and are spontaneously vaporised and ionised Reactions are made possible through this conversion process such that reactiv< gettering with other reagents permits deoxidation or chemical reduction otherwise limite< or unobtainable using conventional reaction conditions.

Therefore a reduction reaction scheme is described using a plasma deposition apparatui at.QinetiQ NanoMaterials limited. The feedstock silica and silicate were fine powders witl preparations hereinbefore described.

Example 7.

A source of fumed silica from Alfa Aesar (silica flour) was passed into the plasma torcl apparatus along with an amount of aluminium powder in the ratio described in exampli 1. The plasma torch apparatus produced a nano powdered product under an argoi purge gas. This was heated for 1 hour at 800 ⁰ C to ensure reaction had gone ti completion. The product was removed and found to be blackened. The product in x-ra

diffraction was found to be substantially silicon and alumina. The alumina was late removed by acid leaching.

The following further examples refer to the ability of fine particle matter to undergo ou diffusion of impurity species into a second phase either comprising gas, or liquid or solii and that removal of said impurities into the second phase can either be by reactivi capture of the impurity (gettering) or by processes governed by laws of diffusion. Th< term coating herein describes a second phase able to interact either as a reactive gette or diffusion sink to the fine particle matter. The objective is to purify the fine particli matter from its initially impure state. The fine particle may be any form of material, fo example a chemical compound, element or alloy or any mixture of these.

Example 8

A source of metallurgical grade silicon powder (MGSi) at 99.9%purity and-325 mesh wa supplied by Sigma-Aldrich. It was mixed in a 1 :1 mass ratio with a passivated aluminium nanopowder supplied by QinetiQ Nanomaterials Ltd. The mixture was heated treated in i nitrogen purged steel crucible for 5 hours at 800 ⁰ C. The impurities in the silicon did nc seem to alter.

Example 9

As a further example, a sample of the same silicon powder as in Example 8 was mixei with magnesium ribbon and heated to the same temperature for the same time.

SIMS analysis was conducted on both heat treated silicon samples and compared to as supplied powder. Metallic impurities and oxygen were found to be depleted in the firs 50nm of the particle surface, but increased back to levels found uniformly in the as supplied sample. The dip in impurity profile in the surface layers was approximately tw< orders of magnitude.

Example 8 used MG-Si powder which has a large particle size. The reaction with nam aluminium did not take place because the aluminium had a passivated surface and th< oxide acted as a diffusion barrier, hence no out diffusion from the silicon is observec The use of magnesium however in example 9 allowed the metal to directly contact th

surface of the MGSi powder. The reason for this is that magnesium has a high vapou pressure above its melting point so it readily coats silicon particle surfaces with ban metal - hence acts as a gettering agent. However, owing to the size of the silicoi particles, it was unable to remove impurities from deeper levels within the particle! because of the longer diffusion length from the inner parts. This would not be true fo smaller particles e.g. nanoparticles, where diffusion lengths are shorter and diffusioi more complete.

Example 10. A sample of nano powdered silicon of average particle size 30nm diameter was mixe< with one of nano powdered aluminium with the same average particle size and heated a 850 ⁰ C for 1 hour. XPS and SIMS analyses showed no reduction in oxygen concentratioi on the particle surface or reduction in the level of metallic impurities uniformly throughou the particles. It is believed that the passivation layer on the aluminium acted as ; diffusion barrier.

It is the case that no reaction was seen in example 10, even though nano silicon wa employed compared to example 8 where larger particles were employed. Again it i thought that reaction was inhibited by the aluminium particle surface having an oxidi layer (passivated) and thus a diffusion barrier was present. However, example 10 dj proceed because the aluminium and silicon nanopowders were produced in-situ in thi plasma deposition rig and were able to interact because the aluminium was nc passivated as the air exposed material (seen in example 8), so diffusion barriers wen absent and gettering was possible.

It is apparent therefore that the reactant must enable an effective diffusion interface wit starting particles thereby to act as diffusion sink for bulk diffusion of impurities fror within particles of the starting material to the reactant. Accordingly, in some case materials are ineffective as a reactant since the interface created with particles of th starting material act as a diffusion barrier. Some materials may be better solid stat diffusion media (eg metals) to impurities than others. Alumina is an example of material acting as a diffusion barrier, but other oxides might allow fast ionic diffusion.

Example 1 1.

A sample of metallurgical grade silicon, MGSi from example 8 was finely divided and fe< into the plasma torch apparatus at QinetiQ NanoMaterials Ltd along with aluminium flake in the mass ratio 10:1 , silicon to aluminium. The resulting nano powdered product wai annealed at 85O ⁰ C for 1 hour. XPS and SIMS particle analyses showed that metallii impurities had been removed from the silicon. In this example the passivating layer c oxygen on the aluminium, seen in example 12, was assumed to have been absent.

Example 12. A sample of untreated nano powdered silicon was mixed with a solution of purifiei sucrose, coated and then heated to dryness and the sugar decomposed to carbon b thermal decomposition. The mixture was heat treated to 850 ⁰ C for 2 hours. Isolate* particles of nano powdered silicon were analysed using SIMS and found to be deplete* at their surface of metallic impurities, presumably through out diffusion into thi surrounding carbon.

Example 13.

A sample of nano powdered silicon was mixed with a solution of purified sodium chloridi and then heated to dryness and further heated to 850 °C in nitrogen at which point thi sodium chloride became molten. After 1 hour, the material was cooled and the sodiun chloride dissolved away to leave the silicon nanopowder. SIMS analysis showed that thi silicon had become depleted of metallic impurities by two orders of magnitude, believei to be because of surface exchange of impurities into the bulk of the molten sodiur chloride. Other inorganic or organic salts in a solid, molten or gaseous form of acidic neutral or alkaline pH will be able to work in the same way, provided that impurities an not able to diffuse from this pure phase into the nano powdered silicon, or other finel divided materials, and that impurities may diffuse out. A preferred term for this proces would be high surface area impurity leaching of solids.

Example 14.

A sample of nano powdered silicon was heated to 850 ⁰ C in hydrogen and after coolin the sample showed using XPS an increase in impurity level presumably throug segregation from defects and onto the nanoparticle surfaces.

Example 15.

A sample of nano powdered silicon was heated to 850 ⁰ C in nitrogen for 1 hour and afte cooling showed no sign of impurity segregation to the nanoparticle surfaces.

The gettering or out-diffusion scheme described here has been found in various guises t( be an effective method of removing impurities from a fine particle matter. The extent o diffusion appears to be controlled by the particle size of the particles in the fine particU matter, the purity of the second phase to act as a diffusion sink, the diffusivity of impurit] species from the fine particle matter into the second phase and the temperature and tim< for the out-diffusion process.

Thus a process is suitable where interaction of a second phase of equivalent purity o one of higher purity is able to remove impurities by diffusion from fine particle matter ii the size range 1 -1000 nanometres, or preferably in the range 1 -100nm. The process ma proceed efficiently using chemical reactions in the temperature range 1 -2,000 °C, bu preferably in the range 500-1400 ⁰ C and for periods of 0.1-10000 minutes, but preferabl' in the range 1 -60 minutes. Where the process is conducted within a plasma depositioi apparatus, then the range of plasma temperature is suitably in the range 4,000 ti 14,000 °C but preferably in the range 6,000 to 10,000 ⁰ C.

The ratio of the fine particle matter to the second phase can be in the range 1 :1 or 1000:1 by molar ratio, but preferably in the range 10:1 or 100:1 by molar ratio. It is preferable for practical purposes that the second phase is readily removed following the out-diffusion process with the fine particle matter, so that impurities may be carried away with the second phase without re-contaminating the fine particle matter once more.

The above embodiments are not to be regarded as limiting in that modifications to the above would be obvious to one skilled in the art. In particular, their teaching would be transferable to other elements of the periodic table and suitable means for heating the nanoparticles may be selected depending on the specific application. Moreover the use of the term mixing, contacting and coating

are used here to describe the process of integrating starting materials sufficiently to enable the reaction phase of the purification step to take place. The reaction phase being understood to occur at high temperature and be a migration or diffusion process enabling contaminates in the nanoparticle starting material to migrate or otherwise diffuse to the reagent. Hence, a diffusion interface occurs between the nanoparticles and reagent during the reaction phase in the form of at least a partial contacting/coating of the nanoparticles by the reagent.