The present invention relates to a method for detecting a pluripotent stem cell (PSC) in an undifferentiated state, comprising analysing miRNA 142 expression in a PSC, wherein an increase of the expression level of miRNA 142 is indicative for an undifferentiated state, when compared to a differentiating or differentiated PSC. Further provided is a method for maintaining a pluripotent stem cell (PSC) in an undifferentiated state, comprising promoting the expression or overexpression of miRNA 142 in said stem cell and a method for inducing or promoting the differentiation of a pluripotent stem cell (PSC), comprising inhibiting the expression or function of miRNA 142 in said stem cell. The invention also provides a method for identifying a compound that modulates the differentiation of a pluripotent stem cell (PSC), comprising a) contacting an PSC with a potential modulator compound, and b) detecting the expression and/or function of miRNA 142 in said PSC in response to said modulator compound, wherein a change in the expression and/or function of miRNA 142 is indicative for a compound that modulates the differentiation in said PSC.

Background of the invention

Stem cells respond to internal and external cues by self-renewal or commitment to a differentiated fate (North et al., 2007; Jiang et al, 2009; Medema and Vermeulen, 2011; Kueh et al, 2013; Blanpain and Fuchs, 2014). Current models suggest that this balance is controlled in vivo by stem cell niches (Scadden, 2006; Voog and Jones, 2010; Simons and Clevers, 2011) and in vitro by an appropriate growth factor environment (Murry and Keller, 2008; Pera and Tarn, 2010).

Mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) constitute a powerful system to study the molecular mechanism of fate decisions in controlled in vitro environment (Rue and Martinez Arias, 2015). mESCs are continuous cell lines derived from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst (Evans and Kaufman, 1981; Martin, 1981). These cells can be propagated indefinitely in vitro while maintaining their pluripotency, i.e. the capacity to give rise to derivatives of all three germ layers and germ cells both in vitro and in vivo. microRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that act as post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression (Bartel, 2009). A growing body of evidence suggests that miRNAs act as key players in stem cell homeostasis (Neumuller et al., 2008; Foronda et al., 2014) and cell fate decisions (Chen et al, 2004; Li and Carthew, 2005; Johnston et al, 2005; Wang et al, 2007; Yi et al, 2008; Schwamborn et al, 2009). However, which miRNAs control stem cell pluripotency decisions and by what mechanism they carry out this important function is largely unknown.

Isobe et al. (in: miR-142 regulates the tumorigenicity of human breast cancer stem cells through the canonical WNT signaling pathway; eLife 2014;3:e01977, November 18, 2014) disclose that miR-142 and miR-150 are upregulated in human breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) as compared to the non-tumorigenic breast cancer cells. In this study, the inventors report that miR-142 efficiently recruits the APC mRNA to an RNA- induced silencing complex, activates the canonical WNT signaling pathway in an APC-suppression dependent manner, and activates the expression of miR-150. Enforced expression of miR-142 or miR-150 in normal mouse mammary stem cells resulted in the regeneration of hyperproliferative mammary glands in vivo. Knockdown of endogenous miR-142 effectively suppressed organoid formation by BCSCs and slowed tumor growth initiated by human BCSCs in vivo.

Abdul Razak et al. (in: Abdul Razak SR, Baba Y, Nakauchi H, Otsu M, Watanabe S. DNA Methylation Is Involved in the Expression of miR-142-3p in Fibroblasts and Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells. Stem Cells Int. 2014; 2014: 101349. Epub 2014 Dec 2) have been analyzing comprehensive expression patterns of microRNA in human and mouse embryonic stem and induced pluripotent stem cells. They determined microRNAs specifically expressed in these pluripotent stem cells, and miR-142-3p is one of such microRNAs. miR-142-3p is expressed at higher levels in induced pluripotent stem cells relative to fibroblasts in mice. Level of expression of miR142-3p decreased during embryoid body formation from induced pluripotent stem cells. Loss-of-function analyses of miR-142-3p suggested that miR-142-3p plays roles in the proliferation and differentiation of induced pluripotent stem cells. CpG motifs were found in the 5' genomic region of the miR-142-3p; they were highly methylated in fibroblasts, but not in undifferentiated induced pluripotent stem cells. Treating fibroblasts with 5-aza-2'- deoxycytidine increased the expression of miR-142-3p significantly and reduced methylation at the CpG sites, suggesting that the expression of miR-142-3p is suppressed by DNA methylation in fibroblasts. Luciferase analysis using various lengths of the 5' genomic region of miR142-3p indicated that CpGs in the proximal enhancer region may play roles in suppressing the expression of miR-142-3p in fibroblasts.

Lu et al. (in: Xinyan Lu et al. miR-142-3p regulates the formation and differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells in vertebrates Cell Research (2013) 23: 1356-1368; published online 29 October 2013) show that in zebrafish and mouse, miR-142-3p is specifically expressed in hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). Knockdown of miR-142a-3p in zebrafish led to a reduced population of HSCs in the aorta-gonad-mesonephros (AGM) region as well as T-cell defects in the thymus.

Shende et al. (in: Shende VR, Neuendorff N, Earnest DJ (2013) Role of miR-142-3p in the Post-Transcriptional Regulation of the Clock Gene Bmall in the Mouse SCN. PLoS ONE 8(6): e65300) suggest that miR-142-3p may play a role in the post-transcriptional modulation of Bmall and its oscillatory regulation in molecular feedback loops mediating SCN circadian function.

US 2014-0288149 relates to compositions and methods for treating an autoimmune disease in a subject, comprising administering to the subject a compound comprising an oligonucleotide, wherein the oligonucleotide comprises a first strand that consists of 8 to 200 nucleosides, and wherein the first strand comprises a region that is identical to at least 8 contiguous nucleotides of miR-142, preferably miR-142 is miR-142-5p or miR-142-3p. WO 2014/140856 provides methods of treating various conditions using miR-142, miR-142 mimics, and antagonists of miR-142.

US 2014-0336239 relates to methods and compositions for modulating the differentiation of a myeloid derived suppressor cell (MDSC). In particular, described herein are miR-142 polynucleotides and miR-223 polynucleotides that can be used to modulate differentiation of MDSCs. Increased differentiation of a MDSC population, or cells within an MDSC population, can be achieved by increasing the miR-142 and/or miR-223 polynucleotides in a MDSC.

WO 2010/056737 discloses methods and compositions for treating a patient having, suspected of having, or at risk of developing cancer by targeting cancer stem cells. hsa-miR-142-3p, hsa-miR-142-5p are mentioned. It is an object of the present invention to provide new tools and methods for using miR-142, in particular with respect to the control of the differentiation of stem cells. Other aspects and objects will become apparent for the person of skill upon reading the following more detailed description of the invention.

According to a first aspect thereof, the above objects have been solved by the present invention by providing a method for detecting a pluripotent stem cell (PSC) in an undifferentiated state, comprising analysing miRNA 142 expression in an PSC, wherein an increase of the expression level of miRNA 142 is indicative for an undifferentiated state, when compared to a differentiating or differentiated PSC.

In the context of the present invention, the tern "pluripotent stem cell (PSC)" shall include both embryonic stem cells, ESCs, and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC), as the properties of both types of cells are very similar, if not identical (see, e.g. Zhengping Jiang, Yanmei Han and Xuetao Cao, Induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSCs) and their application in immunotherapy. Cellular & Molecular Immunology (2014) 11, 17-24; Vimal K. Singh, Manisha Kalsan, Neeraj Kumar, Abhishek Saini, and Ramesh Chandra, Induced pluripotent stem cells: applications in regenerative medicine, disease modeling, and drug discovery. Front Cell Dev Biol. 2015; 3 : 2).

According to a second aspect thereof, the above objects have been solved by the present invention by providing a method for maintaining a pluripotent stem cell (PSC) in an undifferentiated state, comprising promoting the expression or overexpression of miRNA 142 in said stem cell.

According to a third aspect thereof, the above objects have been solved by the present invention by providing a method for inducing or promoting the differentiation of a pluripotent stem cell (PSC), comprising inhibiting the expression or function of miRNA 142 in said stem cell.

According to a fourth aspect thereof, the above objects have been solved by the present invention by providing an in vitro method for identifying a compound that modulates the differentiation of a pluripotent stem cell (PSC), comprising a) contacting a PSC with a potential modulator compound, and b) detecting the expression and/or function of miRNA 142 in said PSC in response to said modulator compound, wherein a change in the expression and/or function of miRNA 142 is indicative for a compound that modulates the differentiation in said PSC.

According to a fifth aspect thereof, the above objects have been solved by the present invention by providing a pharmaceutical preparation comprising a compound that promotes the expression or overexpression of miRNA 142 in a cell for use in the treatment of cancer. .

The inventors found that PSCs with high miR-142 expression are irresponsive to differentiation signals while cells with low miR-142 expression can respond to differentiation cues.

The inventors used a single-cell miRNA activity reporter to identify miR-142 that is bimodal- ly expressed in mESCs under pluripotency-maintaining conditions. miR-142 expression levels stratify mESCs with indistinguishable expression of pluripotency markers into two distinct subpopulations: mESCs with low miR-142 levels are amenable to signal-induced differentiation, while cells with high miR-142 levels are irresponsive to differentiation cues. Using quantitative experiments and simulations, they showed that mESCs switch stochastically between the high and low miR-142 states. Dissecting the molecular mechanism, they found that miR-142 represses the activation of KRAS/ERK signaling in a double-negative feedback loop that creates a bistable system. Thus, the self-generated miR-142 two-state system functions to maintain a stem cell reservoir that is protected from differentiation signals from the environment.

The bimodally expressed microRNA miR-142 defines two stochastically intercon verting states of pluripotent embryonic stem cells: a state competent to differentiate (low miR-142 expression) and a state irresponsive to differentiation signals akin to a stem cell reservoir (high miR-142 expression). miR-142 targets Kras and represses the activation of MAPK/ERK and AKT/PKB. This reveals a novel mechanism to maintain a stem cell reservoir buffered against fluctuating signaling environments.

The results explain why clonal stem cells fail to uniformly differentiate even in a uniform differentiation culture environment. Therefore, these findings are of fundamental interest to regenerative medicine applications where induced pluripotent stem cells failing to differentiate pose a risk of tumor development. According to the invention, miR-142 can be used as marker to identify stem cells in tissues, and isolate them for use in regenerative medicine applications. Suppression of miR-142 can be used to obtain more uniform differentiation from induced pluripotent cell lines or adult stem cell lines. miR-142 targets an oncogene (Kras) and suppresses two key signaling pathways involved in cancer development and progression, MAPK/ERK and AKT/PKB. miR-142 can therefore be seen as a tumor suppressor. In addition, miR-142 expression or lack of thereof can be used as a diagnostic marker to classify the tumor dependency on KRAS, ERK and AKT to decide further treatment options.

The inventors have generated a transgenic mouse model ubiquitously expression a miR-142 sensor. This will enable to characterize the expression of miR-142 in the developing embryo and adult tissues. miR-142 expressing cells will be characterized for their stem cell properties by RNA sequencing and functional assays. Proliferation and survival will be assessed upon miR-142 delivery. miR-142 expression will be assessed in human induced pluripotent cell lines.

The inventors identified an increase of the expression level of miRNA 142 in undifferentiated or undifferentiating ESCs. The analysis showed a 10-fold increase in the expression levels of miR-142-3p and miR-142-5p, the two mature forms of the miR-142 stem loop, in "high" miR-142 mESCs compared to "low" miR-142 mESCs (Figure IF). Thus, preferred is a method according to the present invention, wherein said increase is between about 2 to 20-fold or more, preferably between about 5 to 15-fold, more preferred at about 8 to 12-fold, and most preferred at about 10-fold, when compared to a "low" miR-142 ESC, preferably when compared to a differentiating or differentiated ESC.

In the context of the present invention, "about" shall mean +/- 10% of a given value, unless indicated otherwise. The methods of the present invention can be performed in vivo or in vitro, in particular in laboratory animals, or in culture.

As used herein, the term "miR-142" encompasses miR-142-5p, miR-142-3p, and pre-miR- 142. Thus, preferred is the method according to the present invention, wherein said miRNA 142 is selected from miR-142-3p and miR-142-5p. As used herein, "miR-142-5p" refers to a microR A having the sequence 5'- C AUAAAGUAGAAAGC ACUACU-3 ' (SEQ ID NO: 1). In some embodiments, the matching region of miR-142-5p comprises nucleotides 1 to 9, nucleotides 1 to 8, nucleotides 1 to 7, nucleotides 2 to 9, nucleotides 2 to 8, or nucleotides 2 to 7.

As used herein, "miR-142-3p" refers to a microRNA having the sequence 5'- UGUAGUGUUUCCUACUUUAUGGA-3 ^* (SEQ ID NO: 2). In some embodiments, the matching region of miR-142-3p comprises nucleotides 1 to 9, nucleotides 1 to 8, nucleotides 1 to 7, nucleotides 2 to 9, nucleotides 2 to 8, or nucleotides 2 to 7.

As used herein, "pre-miR-142" refers to a stem- loop having the sequence 5'- GACAGUGCAGUCACCCAUAAAGUAGAAAGCACUACUAACAGCACUGGAGGGUG UAGUGUUUCCUACUUUAUGGAUGAGUGUACUGUG-3 ^* (SEQ ID NO: 3).

The methods according to the present invention can be used to detect, identify and/or manipulate stem cells. Preferred are embryonic stem cells, in particular stem cells that have been prepared or obtained by a method which does not involve the destruction of a mammalian, such as human, embryo. More preferred are pluripotent stem cells, and/or stem cells that are derived from reprogrammed somatic cells. Thus, further preferred is a method according to the present invention, wherein said undifferentiated ESC is a pluripotent stem cell, optionally staining positive for the pluripotency marker OCT4.

Preferred is the method according to the present invention, wherein said PSC is a mammalian PSC, such as a rat, mouse, goat, rabbit, sheep, horse, monkey or human PSC, more preferred is a mouse, rat or human PSC.

Preferred is the method according to the present invention, wherein said PSC is present in a biological sample. The sample can be any kind of biological sample, e.g. body fluid, comprising stem cell(s). The sample can also be cancer or tumor tissue comprising stem cells.

Another aspect of the present invention the relates to a method for maintaining a pluripotent stem cell (PSC) in an undifferentiated state according to the present invention, comprising expressing or overexpressing miRNA 142 in said stem cell. Preferred is the method according to the present invention, wherein said miR A 142 is selected from miR-142-3p and miR-142- 5p.

Preferred is the method according to the present invention for maintaining a pluripotent stem cell (PSC) in an undifferentiated state, comprising promoting the expression or overexpres- sion of miRNA 142 in said stem cell. Preferred is a method according to the present invention, wherein said promoting (increase) of the expression or overexpression is between about 2 to 20-fold or more, preferably between about 5 to 15-fold, more preferred at about 8 to 12- fold, and most preferred at about 10-fold, when compared to a "low" miR-142 PSC, preferably when compared to a differentiating or differentiated PSC.

Said promoting preferably comprises introducing an inducer of the expression of miRNA 142, an expression vector and/or an oligonucleotide comprising a region that is homologous or preferably identical to the nucleotides of miR-142 into said PSC. Preferred is the method according to the present invention, wherein said miRNA 142 is selected from miR-142-3p and miR-142-5p. As used herein, the term "homologous" refers a nucleic acid which is at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, or 100% (identical) to the nucleotides of miR-142.

In some embodiments, oligonucleotides are provided, wherein the oligonucleotides comprise a region that is homologous to at least 8, at least 9, at least 10, at least 1 1, at least 12, at least 13, at least 14, at least 15, at least 16, at least 17, at least 18, at least 19, or at least 20 nucleotides of miR-142, of miR-142-5p, of miR-142-3p or of pre-miR-142.

In some embodiments, oligonucleotides are provided, wherein the oligonucleotides comprise a region that is identical to at least 8, at least 9, at least 10, at least 1 1, at least 12, at least 13, at least 14, at least 15, at least 16, at least 17, at least 18, at least 19, at least 20, at least 25, at least 30, at least 35, at least 40, at least 45, at least 50, at least 55, at least 60, at least 70, or at least 80 nucleotides of pre-miR-142.

In some embodiments, an oligonucleotide that comprises a region that is identical to miR-142 is a miR-142 mimic. In some such embodiments, the oligonucleotide may further comprise a complementary strand. In some such embodiments, the oligonucleotide may be referred to as a double-stranded miR-142 mimic. Double-stranded microRNA mimics are commercially available, e.g., from Qiagen (miScript), Sigma Aldrich, Invitrogen (mirVana), and Thermo Scientific (miRIDIAN microRNA mimics). In some embodiments, the strand comprising the region that is identical to miR-142 and the complementary strand are part of a single oligonucleotide. In some embodiments of double-stranded miR-142 mimics, the double-stranded region of the mimic is 15 to 30 nucleotides in length.

In some embodiments, a miR-142 mimic is an siRNA. A siRNA, or small interfering RNA, is an RNA comprising a double-stranded region of 15 to 25 base pairs in length. In some embodiments, an siRNA comprises a 5 '-phosphate and a 3'-hydroxyl. In some embodiments, an siRNA comprises a two-base overhang (i.e., single-stranded region) on the 3' end of one or both of the RNA strands. One strand of the siRNA is an oligonucleotide (such as an RNA oligonucleotide) that comprise a region that is identical to at least 8, at least 9, at least 10, at least 11, at least 12, at least 13, at least 14, at least 15, at least 16, at least 17, at least 18, at least 19, or at least 20 nucleotides of miR-142. The oligonucleotide, in some embodiments, comprises a region that is identical to the seed match region of miR-142. In some embodiments, such an siRNA targets the same site(s) in the same genes as miR-142, and is therefore considered to be a mimic.

In some embodiments, a miR-142 mimic is a shRNA. A shRNA, or short hairpin RNA, comprises a single RNA strand that is self-complementary over at least a portion of the RNA. In some embodiments, an shRNA is delivered to a subject by administering a vector comprising a coding sequence for the shRNA, such as in gene therapy. See, e.g., Xiang et al, 2006, Nature Biotech., 24: 697-702; Senzer et al, 2012, Mol. Therap., 20: 679-686; US 2010-0299771; US 2012-0004283.

In some embodiments, a vector encoding a shRNA may be administered in order to increase miR-142 levels in a particular cell, cell type, tissue, or subject. In some embodiments, a vector comprising the coding sequence for the miR-142 pre-miRNA or pri-miRNA may be administered in order to increase miR-142 levels in a particular cell, cell type, tissue, or subject. Recombinant expression vectors for miRNAs are known in the art, and recombinant lentiviral expression vectors are the most widely used delivery vehicle for miRNA delivery due to their high efficiency transduction and stable integration. Other routes of delivery (e.g. as particles) are also known to the person of sikill (Powell SK, Rivera-Soto R, Gray SJ. Viral expression cassette elements to enhance transgene target specificity and expression in gene therapy. Dis- cov Med. 2015 Jan;19(102):49-57; Xie J, Burt DR, Gao G. Adeno-associated virus-mediated microRNA delivery and therapeutics. Semin Liver Dis. 2015 Feb;35(l):81-8; Wang H, Jiang Y, Peng H, Chen Y, Zhu P, Huang Y. Recent progress in microRNA delivery for cancer therapy by non-viral synthetic vectors; Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2015 Jan;81 : 142-60; Attar R, Sajjad F, Qureshi MZ, Tahir F, Hussain E, Fayyaz S, Farooqi AA. TRAIL based therapy: overview of mesenchymal stem cell based delivery and miRNA controlled expression of TRAIL. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2014;15(16):6495-7; Tay FC, Lim JK, Zhu H, Hin LC, Wang S. Using artificial microRNA sponges to achieve microRNA loss-of- function in cancer cells. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2015 Jan;81 : 117-27; Lemoinne S, Thabut D, Housset C, Moreau R, Valla D, Bou- langer CM, Rautou PE. The emerging roles of microvesicles in liver diseases. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2014 Jun;l 1(6):350-61).

As used herein, the term "oligonucleotide" refers to an oligomer comprising modified and/or unmodified nucleosides. Modified nucleosides may comprise modified sugar moieties and/or modified nucleobase moieties. Further, an oligonucleotide may comprise modified internu- cleoside linkages, unmodified internucleoside linkages, or both modified and unmodified in- ternucleoside linkages.

Another aspect of the present invention then relates to a method for inducing or promoting the differentiation of a pluripotent stem cell (PSC), comprising inhibiting the expression or function of miRNA 142 in said stem cell. Preferred is a method according to the present invention, wherein said inhibiting (decrease) of the expression or overexpression is between about 2 to 20-fold or more, preferably between about 5 to 15-fold, more preferred at about 8 to 12-fold, and most preferred at about 10-fold, when compared to a "high" miR-142 PSC, preferably when compared to a non-differentiating or undifferentiated PSC.

Said inhibiting or reducing preferably comprises introducing an inhibitor of the expression or function of miRNA 142 into said PSC, such as, for example an oligonucleotide comprising a region that is complementary to the nucleotides of miR-142. Preferred is the method according to the present invention, wherein said miRNA 142 is selected from miR-142-3p and miR- 142-5p.

As used herein, the term "complementary" refers to the ability of a nucleotide on a first nucleic acid to pair with a nucleotide on a second nucleic acid. When a region of a nucleic acid is "complementary" to a region, or set of contiguous nucleotides, of a second nucleic acid, the region may be at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, or 100% complementary to the region, or set of contiguous nucleotides, of the second nucleic acid. Thus, for example, unless otherwise indicated, a region of a first nucleic acid that is complementary to 10 contiguous nucleotides of a second nucleic acid may comprise one mismatch relative to the 10 contiguous nucleotides of the second nucleic acid. An oligonucleotide comprising that region is considered to be complementary to 10 contiguous nucleotides of the second nucleic acid. When there are no mismatches, in some embodiments, the first nucleic acid is said to be "100% complementary" or "fully complementary" to the region, or set of contiguous nucleotides, of the second nucleic acid.

In some embodiments, oligonucleotides are provided, wherein the oligonucleotides comprise a region that is complementary to at least 8, at least 9, at least 10, at least 11, at least 12, at least 13, at least 14, at least 15, at least 16, at least 17, at least 18, at least 19, or at least 20 nucleotides of miR-142 of miR-142-5p, of miR-142-3p or of pre-miR-142.

In some embodiments, an oligonucleotide that comprises a region that is complementary to miR-142 is a single-stranded oligonucleotide. In some embodiments, an oligonucleotide that comprises a region that is complementary to miR-142 is referred to as a miR-142 antagonist or a miR-142 antisense. Single-stranded microRNA inhibitors are commercially available, for example, from Qiagen (miScript miRNA inhibitors). In some embodiments, the oligonucleotide that comprises a region that is complementary to miR-142 is a hairpin microRNA inhibitor, which comprises a self-complementary region such that the oligonucleotide folds into a hairpin. Commercial microRNA hairpin inhibitors are available, e.g., from Thermo Scientific (miRIDIAN microRNA hairpin inhibitors).

In some embodiments, an oligonucleotide comprises at least one modified nucleoside and/or modified internucleoside linkage. In some embodiments, such modifications may increase the binding affinity and specificity of an oligonucleotide for its target nucleic acid as compared to oligonucleotides that contain only deoxyribonucleotides, and may allow for the use of shorter polynucleotides or for shorter regions of complementarity between the oligonucleotide and the target nucleic acid. In some embodiments, such modifications may (or may also) increase the nuclease resistance of the oligonucleotide, improving the pharmacokinetics such that lower doses of the oligonucleotide may be needed to therapeutic effect. In some embodiments, an oligonucleotide includes one or more modified nucleosides, wherein each modified nucleoside comprises a modified nucleobase moiety and/or a modified sugar moiety. In some embodiments, an oligonucleotide comprises one or more modified internu- cleoside linkages, one or more unmodified internucleoside linkages, or a combination of modified and unmodified internucleoside linkages.

Nonlimiting exemplary modified nucleosides having modified nucleobase moieties include nucleosides comprising 5-methylcytosine, isocytosine, pseudoisocytosine, 5-bromouracil, 5- propynyluracil, 6-aminopurine, 2-aminopurine, inosine, diaminopurine, 2-chloro-6- aminopurine, xanthine and hypoxanthine. Nonlimiting exemplary modified nucleosides having modified sugar moieties include nucleosides comprising 2'-substituted sugars, such as 2'- O-alkyl-ribose sugars, 2'-amino-deoxyribose sugars, 2'-fluoro-deoxyribose sugars, 2'-fluoro- arabinose sugars, and 2'-0-methoxyethyl-ribose (2'MOE) sugars, and bicyclic sugars, such as locked nucleic acid ("LNA"). In some embodiments, modified sugars are arabinose sugars, or d-arabino-hexitol sugars.

In some embodiments, an oligonucleotide comprises one or more backbone modifications such as peptide nucleic acids (PNA; e.g., an oligomer including nucleobases linked together by an amino acid backbone). Other backbone modifications include, but are not limited to, phosphorothioate linkages, phosphodiester modified nucleic acids, combinations of phos- phodiester and phosphorothioate nucleic acid, methylphosphonate, alkylphosphonates, phosphate esters, alkylphosphonothioates, phosphoramidates, carbamates, carbonates, phosphate triesters, acetamidates, carboxymethyl esters, methylphosphorothioate, phosphorodithioate, p- ethoxy, and combinations thereof.

One skilled in the art can design a suitable oligonucleotide for an intended application using the knowledge in the art. Nonlimiting exemplary descriptions of oligonucleotides that antagonize microRNAs or mimic microRNAs (such as siRNA) and considerations for designing such oligonucleotides, including suitable modified nucleosides and internucleoside linkages, are described, for example, in US 2011-0166198; US 8,017,763; US 8,173,611; WO 2005- 013901; US 2012-0184596; US 2009-270481; EP 1984382; EP1824975; US 7,834,170; WO 2012-149646; Breving et al. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2010 August; 42(8): 1316-29; van Rooij et al, Circ Res. 2012 Feb. 3; 110(3):496-507; Iorio et al, EMBO Mol. Med. 2012 March; 4(3): 143-159; Frieden, M. et al. (2008) Curr. Pharm. Des. 14(11): 1138-1142, each of which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety for any purpose.

According to the invention, miR-142 can also be used as a marker to identify stem cells that are irresponsive to differentiation in regenerative medicine applications and therefore achieve more efficient differentiation. miR-142 inhibition can in addition be used to aid differentiation. In addition, miR-142 expression can be used to isolate stem cells from patient samples. miR-142 or mimics thereof could be used as anti-cancer agent. Finally miR-142 expression or the lack thereof can be used as a diagnostic marker in cancer to classify the cellular responsiveness to and dependency on AKT and ER signaling.

According to another aspect thereof, the present invention provides an method for identifying a compound that modulates the differentiation of a pluripotent stem cell (PSC), comprising a) contacting an PSC with a potential modulator compound, and b) detecting the expression and/or function of miRNA 142 in said PSC in response to said modulator compound, wherein a change in the expression and/or function of miRNA 142 is indicative for a compound that modulates the differentiation in said PSC. Optionally, said compound is identified as being suitable for modulating the differentiation of an embryonic stem cell (PSC).

More preferred is a method for detecting and/or identifying according to the present invention, wherein said compound is selected from the group consisting of a peptide library, a combinatory library, a cell extract, in particular a plant cell extract, a "small molecular drug", an antisense oligonucleotide, an siRNA, and an antibody or fragment thereof (such as Fab or scFv, and the like).

Preferred is a method for detecting and/or identifying according to the present invention, further comprising testing said compound(s) as detected/identified for its activity on the differentiation of PSCs, and/or the expression and/or function of miRNA 142. Respective assays are known to the person of skill, and can be taken from the respective literature. Said modulator either induces or reduces the expression and/or function of miRNA 142 in said PSC. Preferred is the induction.

The screening method can be performed in vivo (e.g. in test animals as disclosed herein) or in in vitro models, such as stem cell culture systems, as it is known to the person of skill, and can be autoimated as well (Tabata et al. Multiparametric Phenotypic Screening System for Profiling Bio active Compounds Using Human Fetal Hippocampal Neural Stem/Progenitor Cells. J Biomol Screen. 2015 Oct;20(9): 1074-83).

Preferred is a method for detecting and/or identifying according to the present invention, wherein steps a) and b) are repeated, and, optionally, chemically modifying said compound before said repeating. The thus identified candidate compound can then, in a preferred embodiment, modified in a further step. Modification can be effected by a variety of methods known in the art, which include, without limitation, the introduction of novel side chains or the exchange of functional groups like, for example, introduction of halogens, in particular F, CI or Br, the introduction of lower alkyl groups, preferably having one to five carbon atoms like, for example, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl, isobutyl, tert-butyl, n-pentyl or iso- pentyl groups, lower alkenyl groups, preferably having two to five carbon atoms, lower al- kynyl groups, preferably having two to five carbon atoms or through the introduction of, for example, a group selected from the group consisting of NH ₂ , N0 ₂ , OH, SH, NH, CN, aryl, heteroaryl, COH or COOH group. The thus modified binding substances are than individually tested with a method of the present invention. If needed, the steps of selecting the candidate compound, modifying the compound, and testing compound can be repeated a third or any given number of times as required. The above described method is also termed "directed evolution" since it involves a multitude of steps including modification and selection, whereby binding compounds are selected in an "evolutionary" process optimizing its capabilities with respect to a particular property, e.g. its ability to act on miRNA 142 expression and/or activity.

Another aspect of the present invention relates to a method for manufacturing a pharmaceutical composition for use in the differentiation of PSCs, comprising the steps of: performing a method for detecting and/or identifying according to the present invention, and formulating said compound as detected and identified into a pharmaceutical composition.

In a further embodiment of the method of the present invention, the compound identified as outlined above, which may or may not have gone through additional rounds of modification and selection, is admixed with suitable auxiliary substances and/or additives. Such substances comprise pharmacological acceptable substances, which increase the stability, solubility, bio- compatibility, or biological half-life of the interacting compound like, for example, pharma- ceutically acceptable salts, esters or salts of such esters, or bioequivalent compounds thereof, admixed, encapsulated, conjugated or otherwise associated with liposomes, polymers, receptor targeted molecules, oral, rectal, topical or other formulations that assist uptake, distribution and/or absorption, and optionally further comprising penetration enhancers, carrier compounds, and/or transfection agents. Carriers, excipients and strategies to formulate a pharmaceutical composition, are well known to the person of skill and described in the respective literature.

Administration of an agent, e.g., a compound can be accomplished by any method which allows the agent to reach the target cells. These methods include, e.g., injection, implantation, transfection, or any other method of administration where access to the target cells by the agent is obtained. The compound can be suspended in liquid, e.g., in dissolved or colloidal form. The liquid can be a solvent, partial solvent or non- solvent. In many cases, water or an organic liquid can be used.

Yet another aspect of the present invention is directed at a pharmaceutical composition, obtainable or obtained by a method according to the method as herein.

As mentioned above, miR-142 targets an oncogene (Kras) and suppresses two key signaling pathways involved in cancer development and progression, MAPK/ER and AKT/PKB. miR-142 can therefore be seen as a tumor suppressor. Another aspect of the invention thus relates to the pharmaceutical composition as described herein comprising a compound that promotes the expression or overexpression of miRNA 142 in a cell for use in medicine, in particular for use in the treatment of cancer and/or cancer stem cells. Another aspect of the invention thus relates to a method for treating cancer, comprising administering to a cancer cell a pharmaceutically effective amount of said pharmaceutical composition. Preferably, said pharmaceutically effective amount suppresses at least one of the signaling pathways involved in cancer development and progression, MAPK/ERK and AKT/PKB in said cancer, in particular in the difficult to treat cancer stem cells.

It should be understood that an amount of a therapeutic compound, such as a nucleic acid that is provided to a cancer cell or organism is an "effective amount," which refers to an amount needed (or a sufficient amount) to achieve a desired goal, such as inducing a particular cellu- lar characteristic(s) or reducing cancer growth or killing cancer cells and/or alleviating symptoms associated with a cancer.

Preferred is the use according to the present invention, wherein said promoting (increase) of the expression or overexpression is between about 2 to 20-fold or more, preferably between about 5 to 15-fold, more preferred at about 8 to 12-fold, and most preferred at about 10-fold, when compared to a non-treated cancer cell. Said promoting preferably comprises introducing an inducer of the expression of miRNA 142 as described above, an expression vector as described above and/or an oligonucleotide as described above, comprising a region that is homologous or preferably identical to the nucleotides of miR-142 into said cancer cell. Preferred is the method according to the present invention, wherein said miRNA 142 is selected from miR-142-3p and miR-142-5p. Most preferred is a pharmaceutical composition as described herein comprising miRNA 142, miR-142-3p and/or miR-142-5p for use in the treatment of cancer, in particular a cancer that has the oncogene KRAS as the major or essentially only isofiorm of RAS, such as, for example, of colon cancer, cervical cancer, pancreatic cancer, and adenocarcinomas, and in particular of a cancer stem cells.

Other compounds that promote the expression or overexpression of miRNA 142 in a cell for use in medicine can be selected from the group consisting of a peptide library, a combinatory library, a cell extract, in particular a plant cell extract, a "small molecular drug", an antisense oligonucleotide, an siRNA, and an antibody or fragment thereof (such as Fab or scFv, and the like). Prefered are therapeutic nucleic acids (e.g. oligonucleotides) or synthetic or nonsynthet- ic molecules that correspond (in particularly functionally) to a miRNA sequence as disclosed herein.

Routes of administration will vary, naturally, with the location and nature of the cancer or stem cell to be targeted, and include, e.g., intradermal, subcutaneous, regional, parenteral, intravenous, intramuscular, intranasal, systemic, and oral administration and formulation. Injection or perfusion of a therapeutic nucleic acid is specifically contemplated for discrete, solid, accessible precancers or cancers, or other accessible target areas. Local, regional, or systemic administration also may be appropriate.

The inventors's results support a model in which a double-negative feedback loop between Kras/ER -signaling and miR-142 produces a bistable system trapping mESCs in either a "low" miR-142 state that has a high level of ERK/AKT activity and is competent to differentiate or on the other hand a "high" miR-142 state that has a low level of ERK/AKT activity and is blocked from differentiation. High miR-142 levels hereby act as a red traffic light that prevents cells from transducing differentiation signals into gene expression programs driving exit from pluripotency and initiation of differentiation. Low miR-142 levels correspond to the green light that allows the initiation of differentiation.

The mESC heterogeneity as described here is caused by the action of a single microRNA. Such cell-to cell variation is inaccessible to single-cell mRNA-Seq approaches and undetectable by traditional biochemical assays which yield population-average data. The findings add a previously uncharacterized layer of cellular heterogeneity that is upstream of the so far reported mESC heterogeneity at the level of transcription factors (Chambers et al, 2007; Singh et al, 2007; Toyooka et al, 2008).

The differential signaling pathway activation in the "high" and "low" miR-142 state explains the functional phenotypic differences as observed. High AKT activation in "low" miR-142 mESCs is likely to render them more clonogenic, as AKT signaling is known to facilitate cell survival (Paling et al, 2004). The higher sensitivity of "low" miR-142 mESCs to instructive differentiation cues can be readily explained by their nonrepressed activation of ERK signaling, a major transmitter of differentiation stimuli (Kunath et al., 2007).

Indeed, the genetic deletion of mirl42 led to increased levels of ERK and AKT activation, which explains the superior performance of mirl42-/- mESCs in differentiation and clonogen- icity assays. The action of miR-142 in controlling competence for differentiation might be of functional relevance in in vivo development or in the maintenance of adult stem cell compartments. Indeed, miR-142 is required to specify hemangioblast fate (Nimmo et al, 2013) and enforced miR-142 expression impairs macrophage differentiation in vivo (Sonda et al, 2013). Moreover, mirl42-/- mice have numerous hematopoietic defects: impaired lymphopoiesis (Kramer et al, 2015), megakaryopoiesis (Chapnik et al, 2014) and CD34+ dendritic cell homeostasis (Mildner et al, 2013).

Stochasticity in cell fate decisions (Losick and Desplan, 2008) has been described to play an important role ranging from bacterial differentiation (Siiel et al, 2006) via cancer development (Gupta et al, 201 1) to mammalian stem cells (Klein et al., 2010). However, the mirl42 stochastic switch as uncovered here is not a fate switch but rather a mechanism that determines the competence of stem cells to respond to external stimuli. Cells that have entered the "high" miR-142 state are deaf to instructive differentiation signals and are therefore locked in an undifferentiated state until they interconvert into the "low" miR-142 state. Maintaining a stem cell subpopulation in a "high" miR-142 state irresponsive to differentiation cues is a mechanism to protect a reservoir of stem cells from differentiation, which can slowly interconvert into a responsive "low" miR-142 state without being completely diminished due to the high rate of self renewal. Such a buffering mechanism safeguards developmental plasticity in the face of fluctuating or noisy environmental conditions and would prevent depletion of a stem cell reservoir even upon long periods of exposure to differentiation signals.

The results explain why clonal stem cells fail to uniformly differentiate even in a uniform differentiation culture environment (Canham et al, 2010). Therefore, these findings are of fundamental interest to regenerative medicine applications where induced pluripotent stem cells failing to differentiate pose a risk of tumor development (Cohen and Melton, 2011).

The present invention will now be illustrated further in the following non-limiting examples, with reference to the accompanying figures. For the purposes of the invention, all publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entireties.

Figure 1 shows that the bimodal expression of miR-142 distinguishes two states in mESCs. (A) Scheme of the experimental approach to monitor miRNA activity in single cells. (B) Con- focal section of a single cell-derived mESC colony stably expressing the miR-142-3p activity reporter and corresponding Z-score of the reporter ratio. As individual mESCs are not motile within a colony, sister lineages are spatially clustered. Bar: 50 mm. (C) Detector and normal- izer expression in a clonal mESC population stably expressing the miR-142-3p reporter. (D) Distribution of the miR-142-3p reporter ratio in a clonal mESC culture. Two log-normal distributions ("high" miR-142 activity state: gray shaded area; "low" miR-142 activity state: gray shaded area) approximated well the experimental data (black line). (E) Distribution of the miR-142-3p reporter ratio in mirl42-/- mESCs (line) and mirl42-/- mESCs transgenic for the mirl42-hosting lincRNA driven by its own promoter (mirl42-/- rescue, gray line). (F) Deep sequencing analysis of miRNA expression levels in FACS-purified "high" and "low" miR-142 states. Levels of the two mature forms of miR-142, miR-142-3p and miR-142-5p are highlighted in gray. (G) Hill's equation with noncooperative binding approximated well detector mRNA expression levels as a function of miR-142-3p levels (dark dots: experimental data measured by deep sequencing; gray line: fit; shaded area: fit confidence interval).

Figure 2 shows thaf'High" and "low" miR-142 cells express pluripotency markers at equal levels. (A) Alkaline phosphatase staining of FACS -purified "high" and "low" miR-142 state mESCs. Cells were cultured for 24 h after sorting and stained. Bar: 100 mm. (B) Deep sequencing analysis of mRNA expression levels in FACS-purified "high" and "low" miR-142 mESCs. (C) Deep sequencing analysis of mRNA expression levels in FACS-purified "high" miR-142 mESCs and mESCs with low Nanog expression. (D) Average linkage hierarchical clustering of mRNA profiles of "high" and "low" miR-142 mESCs and of mESCs with low Nanog expression. (E) mRNA expression levels of pluripotency markers in FACS-purified "high" and "low" miR-142 state mESCs (n=2; n.s.: not significant, two-sided t-test). (F) Western blot analysis and quantification of pluripotency marker levels in FACS-purified "high" and "low" miR-142 state mESCs (n=7; n.s.: not significant, two-sided t-test). (G) Im- munostaining of OCT4 and NANOG in a clonal miR-142-3p reporter mESC colony. Quantification of NANOG levels in individual cells showed no significant difference in NANOG expression between the "high" and "low" miR-142 states (p=0.25, Kolmogorov-Smirnov test). As individual mESCs are not motile within a colony, sister lineages are spatially clustered. Bar: 100 mm. (H) miR-142 activity reporter ratio in a Rexl-dGFP knock- in mESC line. (I) Distribution of miR-142 reporter ratio in cells positive for Rexl-dGFP expression (Rexl- dGFP+, gray line) and negative for Rexl-dGFP expression (Rexl-dGFP-, black line). Gates identifying the populations are displayed in panel H.

Figure 3 shows interconversion between the two miR-142 states. (A) "High" and "low" miR- 142 subpopulations were FACS-purified and the temporal evolution of the miR-142 reporter ratio was measured. Shaded areas: quantification of cells in "high" or "low" miR-142 states. (B) Scheme of the experimental design to compare proliferation rates of mESCs in the "high" and "low" miR-142 state using a dye dilution by cell division strategy. (C) Time-lapse analysis of the fluorescence intensity of cells stained on day 0 with a commercial dye labeling free amines. The mESC culture was analyzed by flow cytometry each day. The distribution of the dye retention in all live cells in the culture (dark line) could be well approximated by the sum (shaded grey area) of gaussian distributions (white lines outlined in black) representing distinct cell division cycles. The distribution of dye retention in mESCs in the "high" or "low" miR-142 state is outlined by a gray or dark gray line. (D) Population growth of mESCs starting from FACS-purified "high" (gray line) and "low" (dark gray line) miR-142 subpopula- tions (error bars represent S.E.M., n=6). (E) Reaction kinetics model of the interconversion between "high" and "low" miR-142 cells, khigh and klow are the proliferation rates of "high" and "low" miR-142 cells, ki the interconversion rate from "high" to "low" miR-142 state and k_i the interconversion rate from "low" to "high" miR-142 state. (F) Live imaging of switching events during the growth of a single cell-derived mESC colony. Maximal projections of confocal stacks are shown at the indicated time points (h: hour). White arrowheads denote the cell with the first switching event at 41.5 h and the two resulting daughters at 48 h. Bar: 50 mm. (G) Single cell tracks of reporter ratio in two sister lineages (dark gray: sister lineage with activity switching, gray and light gray: sister lineage without activity switching, gray: all other lineages; spikes in reporter signal are artifacts due to signal saturation at mitotic divisions, black arrowheads correspond to the cells marked by white arrowheads in panel F).

Figure 4 shows that mESCs switch stochastically between the two miR-142 states. (A) Stochastic switching model (left panel): cells can switch state each cell division with probability ki or k_i. Experimental scheme (right panel): Clonal cultures were derived from single FACS- purified "high" and "low" miR-142 mESCs. Occurrence of switching events was measured by assessing the miR-142 reporter ratio distribution in individual cultures. (B) Simulation of state distribution after colony growth following the model shown in panel A with a founder cell in "low" miR-142 (dashed gray line) or "high" miR-142 (dashed light gray line) state (170 colonies, 14 divisions, ki + k_i = 0:08 per cell division, ki = 1 :5 k_i). Solid light gray and gray lines: experimentally measured state distribution in cultures derived from FACS-purified founder cells in "high" and "low" miR-142 states (n=169 and n=171). (C) Stochastic switching model with differential survival. "High" and "low" miR-142 mESCs can have different survival rate under clonogenic conditions. (D) Simulation of state distribution after colony growth following the stochastic switching model with differential survival shown in panel C with a founder cell in "low" miR-142 (dotted dark gray line) or "high" miR-142 (dotted gray line) state (170 colonies, 14 divisions, ki+k_i =0:08 per cell division, ki =1 :5 k_i, Piow=Phigh=8). Shaded area: 95% confidence interval. Solid lines: experimental data for FACS- purified founder cells in "high" and "low" miR-142 states, same data as shown in panel B. (E) Clonogenicity of single FACS-purified founder cells in "high" or "low" miR-142 state (c.f.u.: colony forming units; n=50; p=3 x 10 ^"24 , two-sided t-test; error bars represent S.E.M.). Single cells were FACS-purified in 96-well plates (n represents the number of 96-well plates that were analyzed). (F) Clonogenicity of single mirl42+/+ (n=19), mirl42+/- (n=20) or mirl42-/- (n=20) mESCs (c.f.u.: colony forming units; p = 10 ^~8 , p = 2 x 10 ^~8 and p = 8 x 10 ^~16 , two-sided t-test; error bars represent S.E.M.). Single cells were FACS-purified in 96-well plates (n represents the number of 96-well plates that were analyzed).

Figure 5 shows that mirl42 expression locks mESCs in an undifferentiated state. (A) miR-142 reporter signal (left panel) and immunostaining of TUJl and OCT4 (middle panel) in mirl42- /- mESCs differentiated for 6 days to neuroectoderm. Right panel: merge of left and middle panels. Bar: 100 mm. (B) miR-142 reporter signal (left panel) and immunostaining of DESMIN and OCT4 (middle panel) in mirl42-/- mESCs differentiated for 6 days to mesoderm. Right panel: merge of left and middle panels. Bar: 100 mm. (C) miR-142 reporter signal (left panel) and immunostaining of FOXA2 and OCT4 (middle panel) in mirl42-/- mESCs differentiated for 6 days to endoderm. Right panel: merge of left and middle panels. Bar: 100 mm. (D) miR-142 reporter signal (left panel) and immunostaining of TUJl and OCT4 (middle panel) in mESCs with constitutive mirl42-expression differentiated for 6 days to neuroectoderm. Right panel: merge of left and middle panels. Bar: 100 mm. (E) miR-142 reporter signal (left panel) and immunostaining of DESMIN and OCT4 (middle panel) in mESCs with constitutive mirl42-expression differentiated for 6 days to mesoderm. Right panel: merge of left and middle panels. Bar: 100 mm. (F) miR-142 reporter signal (left panel) and immunostaining of FOXA2 and OCT4 (middle panel) in mESCs with constitutive mirl42-expression differentiated for 6 days to endoderm. Right panel: merge of left and middle panels. Bar: 100 mm. (G) Hierarchical clustering of mRNA expression in mirl42+/+, mirl42-/- mESCs or mESCs with constitutive mirl42-expression (const. mirl42) during differentiation to endoderm progenitors. (mirl42+/+: black; mirl42-/-: blue; const. mirl42: orange; shading denotes the day of differentiation according to the boxed legend). (H) Principal component analysis of genome-wide mRNA expression during differentiation of mirl42+/+ (black dots), mirl42-/- (blue dots) mESCs and mESCs with constitutive mirl42-expression (const. mirl42, orange dots). PCI accounting for 60.6% of the variation was characterized by contributions of pluripotency and endoderm differentiation-associated genes, while PC2 (13.4% of the variation) was contributed by genes subjected to transient up- or down- regulation during the differentiation process. Shading denotes the day of differentiation according to the boxed legend in panel G. Black and dak gray arrows depict the differentiation trajectory of mirl42+/+ and mirl42-/- cells respectively. (I) Endoderm marker expression in mirl42-/- (dark gray) cells and cells with constitutive mirl42-expression (gray) differentiated for 6 days (n= 2, **: p<0:01, ***: p<0:001, two-sided t-test. Data represented as mean +/- S.E.M.). (J) mESCs with constitutive mirl42-expression (const. mirl42) were differentiated for 6 days, replated in pluripotency-maintaining conditions and stained for alkaline phosphatase. Bar: 100 mm.

Figure 6 shows that the mirl42-expressing subpopulation is delayed in differentiation. (A) miR-142 reporter signal (left panel) and immunostaining of TUJl and OCT4 (middle panel) in wild type mESCs differentiated for 6 days to neuroectoderm. Right panel: merge of left and middle panels. Bar: 50 mm. (B) miR-142 reporter signal (left panel) and immunostaining of DESMIN and OCT4 (middle panel) in wild type mESCs differentiated for 6 days to mesoderm. Right panel: merge of left and middle panels. Bar: 50 mm. (C) miR-142 reporter signal (left panel) and immunostaining of FOXA2 and OCT4 (middle panel) in wild type mESCs differentiated for 6 days to endoderm. Right panel: merge of left and middle panels. Bar: 50 mm. (D) Distribution of miR-142 activity reporter expression in FACS-purified "high" miR- 142 cells differentiated to neuroectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. Shading denotes the time course of differentiation according to the boxed legend in the top panel. (E) Distribution of miR-142 activity reporter expression in FACS-purified "low" miR-142 cells differentiated to neuroectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. Shading denotes the time course of differentiation according to the boxed legend in the top panel. (F) Morphology of "high" and "low" miR-142 cells exposed for 3 days to endoderm differentiation cues. Bar: 100 mm. (G) Hierarchical clustering of mRNA expression of undifferentiated wild type mESCs (dO, black), wild type mESCs differentiated for 6 days (d6, gray) or subpopulations at day 3 of differentiation sorted according to their mirl42 levels (light gray: high mirl42; dark gray: low mirl42). (H) Projection on the first two principle components PCI and PC2 of mRNA expression profiles of high mirl42 (red dots) and low mirl42 (green dots) at day 3 of differentiation (black dots: undifferentiated mESCs at day 0; gray dots: differentiated cells at day 6). The black arrow represents the differentiation trajectory of wild type cells using data from Figure 5H. (I) Pluripo- tency marker expression in high mirl42 and low mirl42 cells at day 3 of differentiation (n=5 and n=4 respectively, ***: p < 0:001, two-sided t-test. Data represented as mean +/- S.D.).

Figure 7 shows that Ras/ER - signaling and miR-142 form a double-negative feedback loop and produce a bistable system. (A) Pharmacological interrogation of gpl30-stimulated pathways. SC 79 activates AKT, SC-1 inhibits STAT3 activation and PD0325901 (PD) inhibits ER activation. (B) Distribution mirl42 transcriptional reporter expression under pharmaco- logical interrogation of g l30-stimulated pathways (orange lines shaded according to the concentrations shown in the panel: PD; green line: SC 79; magenta line: SC-1; gray line: DMSO control). (C) Activation status of ER , AKT, STAT3 and quantification in FACS- purified "high" and "low" miR-142 mESCs (n= 5, ***: p < 0:001, two-sided t-test. Data represented as mean +/- S.E.M.). (D) Protein levels of gpl30 and RAS and quantification in FACS-purified "high" and "low" miR-142 mESCs (n=5; **: p < 0:01, ***: p < 0:001, two- sided t-test. Data represented as mean +/- S.E.M.). (E) Activation status of ERK, AKT, STAT3 and protein levels of gpl30 and RAS in mirl42+/+ and mirl42-/- mESCs and quantification (n=4; ***: p < 0:001, two-sided t-test; error bars represent S.E.M.). (F) miR-142 and Ras/ERK signaling form a double-negative feedback loop. (G) Theoretical phase diagram of the miR-142-ERK double-negative feedback loop, a represents a rescaled miR-142 turnover and g an ERK activation turnover. Wild type mESCs sit in the bistability region (gray). (H) Simulated miR-142 levels depending on miR-142 production rate. At low production rates, there exists a single low miR-142 state. For intermediate production rates, two stable high and low miR-142 states coexist. Finally a single high miR-142 state is found at high miR-142 production rates. (I) Design of a system with a broken feedback loop through the deletion of Kras (Kras-/- mESCs). (J) Distribution of the miR-142 reporter ratio in Kras-/- mESCs (gray line) and wild type mESCs (Kras+/+, black line). (K) Nullclines of the miR-142 and ERK- signaling double-negative feedback loop (black line: nullcline corresponding to mirl42+/+ cells; purple line: nullcline corresponding to mirl42+/- cells). (L) Prediction of mirl42 expression levels in mirl42+/- mESCs. Using the calibration of the reporter ratio response shown in Figure 1G, the inventors could rescale the mirl42+/+ distribution (gray line) to derive predicted values of miR-142 concentration in the two stable miR-142 states. The reporter ratio distribution in mirl42+/- mESCs (gray line) could be well approximated by the model (light gray dotted line, fitting parameters: state occupancies).

Figure 8 shows that the expression of miR-142-3p and miR-142-5p is coregulated at the level of transcription. Comparison between miR-142-3p, miR-142-5p and mir 142 -hosting lincRNA expression levels across 32 samples comprising mESCs under pluripotency and differentiation conditions as well as adult mouse tissues. Data was acquired by deep-sequencing analysis of matched RNA and miRNA libraries that were prepared from the same total RNA for each biological sample. miR-142-3p and miR-142-5p expression levels as well as miR-142-3p and the mirl42-hosting lincRNA levels were well-correlated (r = 0.977 and r = 0.959 respective- iy). Figure 9 shows that a miR-142-5p activity reporter indicates that miR-142-3p is more potent than miR-142-3p. Transgenic mESCs expressing a fluorescent activity reporter for miR-142- 5p reveals that miR-142-5p is bimodally expressed in mESCs like miR-142-3p. However miR-142-5p is about two-fold less potent than miR-142-3p at repressing the reporter. Solid black and gray lines: distribution of miR-142-5p (black) or miR-142-3p (gray) reporter ratio in self-renewing mESCs. Dotted lines: Gaussian fits identifying the two miR-142-5p states

Figure 10 shows the effect of miR-142-3p and miR-142-5p on gpl30 and Kras expression. A. miR-142 target prediction. Targetscan predicts in the 3'-UTR of gpl30 two binding sites for miR-142-3p and two binding sites for miR-142-5p (top panel). Targetscan predicts in the 3 '- UTR of Kras one binding site for miR-142-3p and two binding sites for miR-142-5p (bottom panel). Bar: 1 kb; b.s.: binding site. B. Reporter assay in mESCs using gpl30 or Kras 3'- UTRs in the presence of LNAs against miR-142-3p or/and miR-142-5p or control LNA (n=6; ***: p < 0.001, two-sided t-test. Data represented as mean ± S.E.M.). C. Reporter assay in mESCs using wild type gpl30 or Kras 3 '-UTRs (WT) or 3'-UTRs with deletion of all the seed regions of miR-142-5p (Δ142-5ρ), miR-142-3p (Δ142-3ρ) and both miR-142-5p and miR-142-3p (Δ142-5ρ/Δ142-3ρ) (n=6; **: p < 0.01, ***: p < 0.001, two-sided t-test. Data represented as mean ± S.E.M.).

Figure 11 shows the effect of mirl42 expression on the viability of two human cancer cell lines. A, B: mirl42 (black) or a control gene (gray) were delivered in different doses to HCT116 cells (panel A) and HeLa Kyoto cells (panel B). Cell viability was measured after 48 h. Data represented as mean ± standard deviation (n=2).

SEQ ID NO: 1 shows the sequence of miR-142-5p (human). SEQ ID NO: 2 shows the sequence of miR-142-3p (human). SEQ ID NO: 3 shows the sequence of pre-miR-142 (human).

SEQ ID NO: 4 shows the sequence of the human miR-142 gene (NC 000017), with the complement (31..53)/product hsa-miR-142-3p, and the complement (69..89)/product "hsa-miR- 142-5p".

SEQ ID NOs: 5 and 6 show the sequences of guide RNA inserts (mouse). SEQ ID NOs: 7 to 10 show the sequences of target sequences for Kras (mouse). EXAMPLES

Construct design. All constructs were cloned using the MXS-chaining approach (Sladitschek and Neveu, 2015). miRNA reporter constructs. PCR-amplified DNA fragments encoding the open reading frame of H2BmCherry and H2B-Citrine were placed on either side of a bidirectional promoter. The PGK-promoter based version consisted of four PGK enhancer elements between two head-to-head oriented minimal PGK promoters (McBurney et al, 1991). The version based on the CAG-promoter (Niwa et al., 1991) consisted of four CMV immediate-early enhancer elements between two head-to-head arranged fragments containing the first exon and partial intron of chicken b-actin gene linked to the splice acceptor of the rabbit b-globin gene. The rabbit bGpA was used for both fluorescent proteins, but a binding site, perfectly complementary to the miRNA to be monitored was incorporated 11 bp downstream of the Citrine stop codon. A PGK::hygroRbGHpA cassette was included for selection. For use in the Rexl-dGFP knock-in mESC line (kindly provided by Austin Smith), the inventors constructed an activity reporter based on the same bidirectional CAG-promoter driving the expression of H2B- 2xTagBFP as normalizer and H2B-Cherry as detector. Stable mESCs lines expressing the activity reporter were generated. mirl42 transcriptional reporter. The 1.52 kb fragment upstream of the mirl42-hosting lin- cRNA gene (ENSMUSG00000084796) was PCR-amplified from mouse genomic DNA from 129 genetic background and cloned in front of H2B-TagBFPx3-bGpA. The plasmid contained a PGK: :neoR-bGHpA cassette for selection. A stable transgenic mESC line expressing the mirl42 transcriptional reporter was established in a line stably expressing the miR-142 activity reporter.

Inducible mirl42 construct. The lincRNA containing gene (ENSMUSG00000084796) was PCR-amplified from mouse genomic DNA from 129 genetic background and cloned on one side of a bidirectional Tet-promoter. On the other side of the promoter, the inventors cloned NLS-TagBFPx3-PEST2D-bGHpA to quantify the induction level. The plasmid contained a PGK: :neoR-bGHpA selection cassette and a PGK: :rtTA-bGHpA cassette. A stable cell line (in a background stably expressing the miR-142 activity reporter) expressing mirl42 in the presence of doxy eye line at a dosage corresponding to 1.5 times the levels of endogenous mirl42 expression in "high" miR-142 state cells was used as mirl42 gain-of- function mESCs. Total miR-142 levels in those cells represented 0.05% of the total miRNA pool and were similar to the endogenous miR-142 expression levels found in the top 10% "high" miR-142 state cells, ruling out any overload of the miRNA biogenesis machinery. The mirl42 stem loop- encoding fragment was replaced by a control miRNA stem loop in the control plasmid and a stable transgenic mESC line containing the construct was established in a line stably expressing the miR-142 activity reporter.

Cell culture. Mouse ESCs (Rl provided by the EMBL Transgenic Service or E14tga2, a kind gift of Michael Elowitz), were maintained without feeders in "LIF+serum" medium (DMEM high glucose, no glutamine, with sodium bicarbonate, Invitrogen) supplemented with 15% ES-qualified EmbryoMax Fetal Calf Serum (Millipore), 10 ng/ml murine LIF (EMBL Protein Expression and Purification Core Facility), lx Non-Essential Amino Acids, 2 mM L- glutamine, 1 mM sodium pyruvate, 100 U/ml penicillin and 100 mg/ml streptomycin, 0.1 mM 2- mercaptoethanol (all Invitrogen) on culture dishes (Nunc) coated with 0.1 % gelatin (Sigma) solution and cultured at 37_C with 5% C02. N2B27 medium was prepared from a 1 : 1 mixture of DMEM/F12 (without HEPES, with L-glutamine) and neurobasal medium with 0.5x B-27 (without vitamin A) and 0.5x N-2 supplements, 100 U/ml penicillin and 100 mg/ml streptomycin, 0.25 mM L-glutamine, 0.1 mM 2-mercaptoethanol (all Invitrogen), 10 mg/ml BSA fraction V and 10 mg/ml human recombinant insulin (both Sigma). "2i" medium (Ying et al, 2008) was N2B27 medium supplemented with 3 mM CHIR99021 and 1 mM PD0325901 (both Tocris Bioscience). "LIF+BMP4" (Ying et al, 2003a) medium was prepared by adding 10 ng/ml murine BMP4 (R&D Systems) to N2B27 medium with 10 ng/ml murine LIF. Cells under primed pluripotency conditions (Greber et al, 2010) were cultured in N2B27 medium with 12 ng/ml murine FGF2 and 20 ng/ml murine Activin A (both Pepro- Tech). Medium was changed daily and cells were passaged every other day with 0.05% Tryp- sin-EDTA or StemPro Accutase (Invitrogen) at a passaging ratio of 1/3-1/12. mESCs were differentiated to endoderm precursors, mesoderm precursors and neuroectoderm precursors as described (Borowiak et al, 2009; Torres et al, 2012; Ying et al, 2003b).

Generation of mirl42+/-, mirl42-/- mESCs and rescue of mirl42 knock-out. RNA-guided Cas9 nucleases were used to delete the mirl42 gene. Two guide RNA inserts (with genome target sequences: 5 '-GGTGGCCTGAAGAATCCCCG (SEQ ID NO: 5), 5'- GGAGCCATGAAGGTCTTTCG (SEQ ID NO: 6) were designed and cloned in pX330-U6- Chimeric-BB-CBh-hSpCas9 following Hsu et al. (2013). Both Cas9 plasmids were cotrans- fected in mESCs stably expressing the miR-142 activity reporter. Successfully edited clones corresponding to mirl42+/- and subsequently to mirl42-/- were identified by the derepression of the miR- 142-3p activity reporter and the deletion was confirmed by sequencing of genomic PCR products. For the mirl42-/- rescue construct, the 1.52 kb upstream region and the mirl42-hosting lincRNA gene (ENSMUSG00000084796) were combined and a PGK::puroR- bGHpA cassette was added for selection. Stable transgenic mESC lines expressing the construct were generated in a mirl42-/-/miR-142 activity reporter background.

Generation of Kras-/- mESCs. RNA-guided Cas9 nucleases were used to delete the Kras gene. Four guide RNA inserts targeting the first exon of Kras which is essential (Johnson et al, 1997) (with genome target sequences: 5 '-TATACTCAGTCATTTTCAGC (SEQ ID NO: 7), 5 '-GACTGAGTATAAACTTGTGG (SEQ ID NO: 8), 5'- CTGAATTAGCTGTATCGTCA (SEQ ID NO: 9), 5 '-GCTAATTCAGAATCACTTTG (SEQ ID NO: 10)) were designed and cloned in pX330-U6-Chimeric-BB-CBh-hSpCas9 following Hsu et al. (2013). The four Cas9 plasmids were cotransfected in mESCs stably expressing the miR-142 activity reporter. Successfully edited clones corresponding to Kras-/- were validated by checking for the deletion of the first exon by genomic PCR and the absence of any KRAS protein expression by Western blot.

Flow cytometry and fluorescence-activated cell sorting. Cells were analyzed on an LSR- Fortessa flow cytometer (BD Biosciences). FACS -purification was carried out using two MoFlo sorters (DakoCytomation) or a BD Influx sorter (BD Biosciences).

Pharmacology. mESCs were cultured in LIF+serum supplemented with the following compounds at the indicated concentrations: AKT activator SC 79 (Tocris) at 5 mM, MEK inhibitor PD0325901 (Tocris) at 0.2-1.2 mM, STAT3 inhibitor SC-1 (Sigma) at 5 mM and GSK-3 inhibitor CHIR99021 (Tocris) at 3 mM. DMSO served as vehicle and as negative control in all cases.

RNA-seq library construction. RNA was extracted from cells trypsinized from plates or pelleted directly after FACS-sorting using the Mir-Vana kit (Ambion) following the manufacturer's instructions. miRNA and mRNA libraries were prepared from the same total RNA sample. 21 barcoded miRNA libraries were prepared using NEBNext Multiplex Small RNA Library Prep Set for Illumina (New England Biolabs) following the manufacturer's instructions. 78 barcoded mRNA libraries were prepared using TruSeq RNA Sample Preparation (Illumina) following the manufacturer's instructions. Libraries were run on Illumina HiSeq 2000 in the 50SE regime.

RNA-seq analysis: The inventors built a Bowtie index for Ensembl cDNAs of the mouse genome release GRCm38 masked with Repeat-Masker (Smit, AFA, Hubley, R and Green, P. RepeatMasker Open-3.0. 1996-2010 http://www.repeatmasker.org). mRNA reads were aligned to this index using Bowtie (Langmead et al, 2009) with default parameters. mRNA read counts were determined for each Ensembl ID using custom Python scripts. Read counts were not normalized by the transcript length for individual genes as the inventors were solely interested in relative expression changes across samples. After trimming, miRNA reads were matched to miRBase release 19 (Griffiths- Jones et al, 2008) mouse sequences allowing no mismatch using custom Python scripts. Read counts were normalized to account for different sequencing depth. The normalization factor was determined by matching median- filtered log- transformed read counts for two samples to the identity line. For hierarchical clustering analysis, the inventors kept genes with a maximal expression >1 transcript per cell across samples and at least a 4-fold variation in expression and used Pearson's correlation coefficient as a distance. Principle component analysis was carried out as described in Neveu et al. (2010).

Live imaging. mESCs were seeded at single-cell density (200 cells/cm ² ) onto gelatin-coated Lab-Tek glass-bottom chamber slides (Nunc) or m-slides (Ibidi). Confocal sections were acquired on an inverted SP8 confocal microscope (Leica) equipped with 40x PL Apo 1.1 W objective in an incubation chamber at 37°C under a humidified 5% C0 ₂ atmosphere. Citrine and mCherry were excited with 514-nm and 561-nm lasers, and green and red signals were acquired sequentially using HyD detectors. Images were segmented using custom Python scripts. Phase contrast bright-field images were acquired on an inverted DM IL LED (Leica) microscope with HI PLAN I lOx/0.22 PHI and HI PLAN I 20x/0.30 PHI objectives.

Modeling of the activity reporter response. The inventors modeled the reporter ratio r dependence on the miRNA concentration M by r = l=(l+Mn=Kn) where K is the binding constant and n is the Hill coefficient of the interaction. Using deep sequencing results for the reporter transcript and miR-142-3p from the same sample, the inventors found that n = 1 :07_0:04, i.e. there is no cooperativity in the reporter response. Modeling of state switching

Population behavior. The temporal dynamics of the interconvertible system of the "high" and "low" miR-142 states is governed by the following equations: dH

it

dt

where H and L are the number of cells in the "high" and "low" miR-142 states respectively, k igh and ki _ow are the division rates of the two states, ki the switching rate from "high" to "low" miR-142 state and k_i the switching rate from "low" to "high" miR-142 state. Given khigh = kiow = k from experimental data, the evolution of the population reads: where Ho and LQ are the initial number of cells in "high" and "low" miR-142 state.

Single-cell behavior. To model culture-reconstitution experiments from single founder cells, the inventors allowed for stochastic state switching once per cell cycle with probability ki and k_i for 14 divisions (corresponding roughly to the 15,000-strong cell population analyzed in the experiment) using ki =1 :5 k_i . The inventors introduced a survival bias for "low" miR-142 cells compared to "high" miR-142 cells under single-cell plating conditions for the first two cell divisions. Two parameters were adjusted: ki + k_i = 0:08 per cell division and the survival bias which was set to 8. State distribution was determined for 170 independently simulated colonies. Confidence intervals were determined by simulating 100 times 170 colonies for each miR-142 state.

Modeling of the miR-142-ERK signaling double-negative feedback loop. The temporal dynamics of the double-negative feedback loop between miR-142 and LIF-induced ER signaling was modeled by the following equations:

where M is the concentration of miR-142, E the fraction of active ERK, k _d i and k _d2 the degradation rate of miR-142 and active ERK, E ^tot the total concentration of ERK (assumed to be constant), KE the active ERK repression constant, ki the production rate of miR-142, k ₂ the maximum activation rate of ERK, ¾ the Hill coefficient of ERK-mediated miR-142 repression and ni the Hill coefficient of the miR-142-mediated ERK repression. ERK is known to dimerize (Khokhlatchev et al., 1998) so ¾ = 2. miR-142 represses multiple components of the LIF-induced MEK/ERK cascade so ¾ > 1. He inventors took ¾ = 2 without any loss of generality of the findings. By introducing the parameters a = ki/Ki u, β = E ^tot /K _E , γ = k ₂ /k _d2 , and introducing the rescaled quantities X = M/ Κι and Y = E/E ^tot , the inventors can rewrite the system as a function of X and Y:

a represents a rescaled miR-142 turnover and γ an ERK activation turnover. The nullclines are:

Y

1 I v j α¾' ²

mirl42+/- cells are equivalent to having a miR- 142 production rate of ki/2. The inventors determined numerically steady state solutions in the α, β and γ parameter space. Theoretical phase diagram (Figure 7G) is shown for b = 10. miR-142 expression levels (Figure 7H) are computed for 0 < a < 20, β = 10, γ = 1. Nullclines (Figure 7K) are computed for a = 12, β = 10, γ = 1. Statistical analysis. Statistical tests were computed using the Python SciPy module. When appropriate, the inventors corrected for multiple hypothesis testing following Benjamini and Hochberg (1995).

Primary data. Sladitschek HL, Neveu PA (2014). A toggle-switch between miR-142 and LIF-signaling creates heterogeneity among mouse ES cells. ArrayExpress E-MTAB-2830, E- MTAB-2831 and E-MTAB-3234.

Results

miR-142 is a new marker of mESC heterogeneity under naive pluripotency conditions

The inventors reasoned that miRNAs that control different self-renewing mESC states should show heterogeneous expression under uniform pluripotency-maintaining conditions. To identify such miRNAs, the inventors devised a ratiometric fluorescence sensor that can visualize miRNA activity in single cells. The reporter consists of a bidirectional promoter driving the expression of a normalizer (H2B-mCherry) and a miRNA detector (H2BCitrine), which contains in its 3'-UTR a target sequence of the miRNA of interest (Figures 1A).

Using this reporter system, the inventors screened 33 conserved miRNAs associated with differentiation, pluripotency or cell proliferation in mESC lines stably expressing specific reporters. As expected, the inventors found the abundant miR-294 to be highly active, whereas the differentiation-associated miRNA let-7 showed little activity. Most miRNA reporters displayed a normally distributed cell-tocell variation comparable to a non-targeted control. Strikingly, however, the inventors found a strongly variegated activity of miR-142-3p that divided clonal mESC colonies into two sectors with very different miRNA activity (Figure IB). Also at the population level, miR-142-3p activity was clearly bimodal distinguishing two mESC populations with either a high or a low miR-142-3p activity state (in the following referred to as "high" and "low" miR-142 states, Figures 1C and D). Furthermore, this bimodal regulation was present in chemically defined media conditions that support naive pluripotency including "2i" but was absent in primed pluripotency. Thus, the bimodal regulation of mir-142 represents a novel kind of mESC heterogeneity in LIF-dependent pluripotency.

To validate that the inventors' reporter responded specifically to miR-142-3p, the inventors generated mirl42-/- mESC lines by deleting both alleles of mirl42 using the CRISPR/Cas9 technology. As expected, the repression of the reporter was relieved in mirl42-/- cells (Figure IE). In addition, the inventors assessed miRNA expression levels of FACS -purified "high" and "low" miR-142 state subpopulations in wild type mESCs by deep sequencing.

This analysis showed a 10-fold increase in the expression levels of miR-142-3p and miR-142- 5p, the two mature forms of the miR-142 stem loop, in "high" miR-142 mESCs compared to "low" miR-142 mESCs (Figure IF). Expression levels of all the other detected miRNAs were tightly correlated between the "high" and "low" miR-142 states (Figure IF). Finally, the inventors calibrated the inventors' single-cell miRNA activity reporter using expression data of miR-142-3p and mRNA reporter levels measured by deep-sequencing. As expected, the signal of miR-142 activity reporter depends on miR-142-3p levels following Hill's equation with noncooperative binding (Figure 1G). The inventors' reporter thus specifically measures the activity of miR-142-3p. Low miR-142-3p levels correspond to large reporter ratios and high miR-142-3p levels yield small reporter ratios. The system therefore allows us to quantitate miR-142 expression changes in single living cells.

The two miR-142 states are indistinguishable by pluripotency markers. Previous reports of mESC heterogeneity found a metastable coexistence of a pluripotent state and a state prone to differentiate and already expressing lower levels of the pluripotency markers Nanog and Rexl (Chambers et al, 2007; Singh et al, 2007; Toyooka et al, 2008; Singer et al, 2014). To test if miR-142 heterogeneity is upstream of expression changes in pluripotency markers, the inventors analyzed FACS-purified "high" and "low" miR-142 mESC populations. The two miR-142 states were both positive for alkaline phosphatase staining (Figure 2A). mRNA profiles measured by deep sequencing of FACS-purified "high" and "low" miR-142 state mESCs clustered together, while the mRNA profiles of mESCs with low Nanog expression clustered apart (Figures 2B-D). Closer examination of pluripotency factor expression showed no significant difference in the mRNA or protein expression levels of Oct4 (or Pou5fl), Nanog, Rexl (or Zfp42) and Sox2 between the "high" and "low" miR-142 states in FACS-purified subpopulations (Figures 2E and F). Furthermore, the "high" and "low" miR-142 states showed no difference in the known heterogeneity of NANOG (Figures 2G) or REXl protein expression at the single cell level. Moreover, all cells stained positive for the pluripotency markers OCT4 and SSEA-1 irrespective of their "high" or "low" miR-142 state identities. In addition, neither "high" nor "low" miR-142 state cells shared molecular markers with epiblast stem cells, that reside in a state of primed pluripotency. Thus, the "high" and "low" miR-142 states are indis- tinguishable in their pluripotency marker expression and did not represent a primed pluripo- tent state.

Finally, the inventors introduced the miR-142 activity reporter in a Rexl-dGFP knock- in mESC line (Wray et al, 2011) in order to compare the bimodal regulation of miR-142 to the known heterogeneity in Rexl expression. mESCs with high Rexl-dGFP levels revealed a bimodal regulation of miR-142 activity, i.e. mESCs with high Rexl-dGFP reside in either the "high" miR-142 state or the "low" miR-142 state (Figures 2H and I). Moreover, cells with low Rexl-dGFP expression had a unimodal reporter distribution with a reporter ratio comparable to mirl42-/- mESCs, corresponding to an absence of miR-142 expression (Figures 2H and I). Thus, the "high" miR-142 state and the "low" miR-142 sate are only found in the high Rexl mESC compartment.

This finding places miR-142 bimodality upstream of the so far described heterogeneity in pluripotency transcription factor expression. Therefore, miR-142 bimodality represents a novel kind of heterogeneity in naive mESCs.

The two miR-142 states interconvert stochastically: To assess if and how the two miR-142 states can interconvert into each other, the inventors monitored the distribution of miR-142 activity after FACS -purification of "high" or "low" miR-142 subpopulations (Figure 3 A). Indeed either state could regenerate the other within 10 days of culture under pluripotency conditions (Figures 3A). State recovery was not due to any differential growth between the two miR-142 states because "high" and "low" miR-142 cells divided at the same rate every 12 h (Figures 3B-D). To determine the interconversion rates, the inventors quantified the fraction of the population in the "high" and "low" miR-142 states. The inventors then fitted the population data using first order reaction kinetics (Figures 3E). Cells converted from "high" to "low" miR-142 states with a rate ki = 0.072 +/- 0.01 per cell division (on average one switching event every 14 divisions), while the backconversion was slightly slower occurring with a rate k_i = 0.048 +/- 0.006 per cell division (on average one switching event every 23 divisions). Investigating the reporter ratio distribution in cultures derived from FACS-purified single cells showed that cultures recovered both states whether starting from "high" or "low" miR-142 founder cells. This demonstrated that all clonogenic cells can switch between states. Single-cell live imaging of miR-142 activity revealed that switching occurred rapidly within less than a cell cycle and that after division sister lineages were not always correlated in their switching behavior (Figures 3F, G) suggesting stochastic switching events.

If switching were indeed stochastic, the variegated distribution of "high'V'low" miR-142 cells in a colony grown from a single cell will depend on the time when the first state switching occurred, since the states are on average stable for several cell cycles (Figure 4A). Using a stochastic switching model, the inventors could simulate the expected fraction of cells that switched state in colonies derived from pure "high" or "low" miR-142 state single founders (Figure 4B). To test this prediction, the inventors measured the fraction of switched cells in colonies grown from single FACS-purified "high" or "low" miR-142 cells. The stochastic switching model approximated well data from founder cells FACS-purified in the "low" miR- 142 state but could not fit with the same parameters the state composition obtained in cultures derived from founder cells FACS-purified in the "high" miR-142 state (Figure 4B). The inventors thus introduced a refined model in which cells stochastically switch between the two miR-142 states but "high" and "low" miR-142 cells can have different survival rates under clonogenic conditions while having the same proliferation rate (Figure 4C). The experimental data was recapitulated by simulations using this refined model including a survival bias for "low" miR-142 cells under clonogenic conditions (Figure 4D). Interestingly, the inventors experimentally confirmed this survival bias predicted by the model. Indeed, clonogenicity of FACS-purified "low" miR-142 cells (19.8 +/- 6.6%) was higher than for "high" miR-142 cells (5.8 +/- 3.1%) (Figure 4E). This gave a survival bias for "low" miR-142 cells of 6.9 (90% confidence interval: 1.8-17.8), in excellent agreement with the 8-fold survival bias predicted by the simulations. Using a genetic loss-of-function approach, the inventors could show that the loss of mirl42 expression indeed improved clonogenicity without affecting the proliferation rate (Figure 4F). In summary, the inventors could demonstrate experimentally and theoretically that individual mESCs fluctuate stochastically between the two miR-142 states at a relatively low rate with a state switching event occurring on average every 8 cell divisions.

Constitutive miR-142 expression locks cells in an undifferentiated state. A hallmark of embryonic stem cells is the ability to generate distinct differentiated cell types. To assess whether mirl42 expression affects differentiation capacity, the inventors compared mirl42 gain- or loss-of-function mESCs regarding their capabilities to differentiate towards fates of the three germ layers, i.e. neuroectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm fate. Upon differentiation, mirl42-/- cells stained positive for the neuronal marker Tujl (or blll-tubulin), the muscle marker Desmin or the endoderm marker Foxa2 and were negative for the pluripotency marker Oct4 (Figures 5A-C). By contrast, mirl42 gain-of- function cells retained Oct4 expression and showed no differentiation marker expression (Figures 5D-F). In order to understand genome- wide this striking difference in response to differentiation cues, the inventors profiled the transcriptomes of wild type mESCs, mirl42-/- and mirl42-expressing mESCs during a six day endoderm differentiation time course. Strikingly, cells constitutively expressing mirl42 always clustered with undifferentiated wild type and mirl42-/- cells at day 1 or 2 (Figure 5G), while differentiating wild type mESCs and mirl42-/- cells from day 3-6 cluster separately. Using principle component analysis allowed the inventors to visualize the trajectory of expression profiles during six days of differentiation (Figure 5H). This showed that unlike wild type and mirl42-/- cells, cells constitutively expressing mirl42 were essentially locked in an undifferentiated expression state (Figures 5H) and consistently failed to up-regulate established endoderm markers (Figure 51). Even at the end of the six day differentiation procedure, cells with constitutive mirl42 expression proliferated normally under pluripotency conditions, exhibited the characteristic 3-dimensional morphology of undifferentiated mESC colonies and were alkaline phosphatase-positive (Figure 5J). In addition, genetic deletion of mirl42 led to significantly larger changes in gene expression compared to wild type cells as measured by projection on PCI and PC2. Indeed, mirl42-/- cells exhibited significantly higher levels of differentiation markers and a lower expression of pluripotency markers compared to wild type cells at day 6 of differentiation. Together, the inventors' data demonstrates that mirl42 expression locks mESCs in an undifferentiated state even if exposed to strong differentiation cues for several days.

The "high" mirl42 subpopulation is delayed in differentiation. To test if the naturally generated "high" miR-142 state also locks cells in an undifferentiated state, the inventors differentiated wild type mESCs expressing the miR-142 reporter towards neuroectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm fate. Upon differentiation towards neuroectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm fate, cells with "low" miR-142 activity stained positive for the neuronal marker Tujl (or blll-tubulin), the muscle marker Desmin or the endoderm marker Foxa2, respectively (Figures 6A-C). In contrast, cells exhibiting "high" miR-142 activity stained positive for the pluripotency marker OCT4 independently of the differentiation regime (Figures 6A-C). The in- voentors next aimed to characterize the effect of the endogenous bimodal miR-142 expression during the differentiation of a wild type mESC population in more details. The inventors first monitored the changes of miR-142 activity in FACS-purified "high" or "low" miR-142 cell populations undergoing differentiation to neuroectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. "High" miR-142 cells gradually lost miR-142 activity (and mirl42 expression) over the first 4 days of differentiation irrespective of the differentiation regime, becoming in majority converted into a "low" miR-142 state by day 7 (Figures 6D). In contrast, "low" miR-142 cells did not change their miR-142 activity state under any differentiation cue (Figure 6E). Inspection of the differentiating cultures revealed that "high" miR-142 cells kept their 3-dimensional morphology up to 4 days, whereas "low" miR-142 cells readily adapted a differentiated monolayer morphology within 3 days (Figure 6F).

The inventors next aimed to gain a genome-wide view of the differences in gene expression in differentiating mESCs depending on their mirl42 levels. To do so, they subjected a bimodal mESC population grown under pluripotency conditions to differentiation cues for 3 days, FACS-purified cell populations with either high or low mirl42 expression and assessed gene expression by transcriptome profiling. Cells that exhibited high mirl42 levels after three days of differentiation clustered with undifferentiated mESCs, whereas cells with no mirl42 expression clustered with differentiated cells (Figure 6G). Projection onto the differentiation gene expression trajectory of wild type mESCs confirmed that mirl42-expressing cells remained at the beginning of the differentiation trajectory, while the profiles of mirl42-negative cells had progressed to the end of the trajectory similar to differentiated cells (Figure 6H). Probing specific genes showed that mirl42-expressing cells failed to down-regulate pluripotency genes in response to instructive differentiation cues (Figures 61).

To conclude, the naturally generated "high" miR-142 state locked cells in an undifferentiated state and the bimodal regulation of mirl42 establishes a dichotomy between a subpopulation amenable to differentiation (the "low" miR-142 cells) and a pool of cells delayed in differentiation (the "high" miR-142 cells). miR-142 states differ in AKT and ERK activation. Next, the inventors sought a mechanistic understanding of the bimodal expression of miR-142 under LIF-dependent pluripotency conditions. Deep sequencing and a single-cell mirl42 transcriptional reporter demonstrated that transcriptional regulation accounted for the bimodal regulation of miR-142 activity. LIF is known to activate three distinct signaling pathways through its coreceptor gpl30 (Figure 7A): the JAK/STAT3 (Niwa et al, 1998) and PI3K/AKT (Paling et al, 2004) pathways and the MEK/EPv signaling cascade (Burdon et al., 1999). Inhibiting ERK activity increased the expression of the mirl42 transcriptional reporter in a dose-dependent manner, while inhibition of STAT3 or activation of AKT had no effect (Figures 7B). This indicated that ERK activity normally represses mirl42 expression, predicting that cells with "high" miR-142 activity have reduced ERK activity. To test this, the inventors measured phosphorylated ERK kinase in FACS-purified "high" and "low" miR-142 state subpopulations. "High" miR-142 cells indeed showed reduced level of active ERK kinase compared to "low" miR-142 mESCs, while total ERK levels were unaffected (p = 7 x 10 ^"7 for p-ERK, n = 5, two-sided t-test, Figure 7C). In addition phosphorylated AKT levels were reduced in "high" miR-142 cells compared to "low" miR-142 mESCs, while total AKT levels were unaffected as was phosphorylated and total STAT3 (p = 8 x 10 ^"9 and p = 0.78 for p-AKT and p-STAT3, n = 5, two-sided t-test, Figure 7C). Thus, the miR-142 states correspond to two subpopulations of mESCs that differed in the activation status of ERK and AKT signaling.

Expression levels of miR-142-3p and miR-142-5p The expression levels of miR-142-3p and miR- 142-5p in mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs), differentiating stem cells or adult tissues are very well correlated over an expression range spanning four orders of magnitude as measured by deep sequencing of the miRNA complement (Figure 8). In other words, all the cell types examined expressed both forms of miR-142. Moreover, miR-142-3p was on average 1.85 fold more abundant than miR- 142-5p. In order to gauge the difference in biological activity between miR-142-3p and miR-142-5p, the inventors generated an mESC line transgenic for an activity reporter for miR-142-5p. Like miR- 142-3p, miR-142-5p was bimodally expressed in self-renewing mESCs (Figure 9). However, the separation between the two identified miR-142-5p reporter activity states was twice as small as in a miR- 142-3p reporter. Given that the expression of miR-142-3p and miR-142-5p is correlated, this demonstrated that miR-142-5p is two-fold less potent at repressing its targets than miR-142-3p. To examine whether this effect was measurable on endogenous targets, the inventors investigated the effect of miR-142-5p and -3 target sites in the 3'-UTR of gpl30 and Kras, two miR-142 targets (Figure 10A). Inhibition of miR-142-3p led to a greater relief of repression compared to miR-142-5p (Figure 10B). Similarly, deletion of the miR-142-3p target sites had more effect than deletion of miR-142-5p target sites (Figure IOC). It should be noted that both miR-142 forms contribute to the repression of gpl30 and Kras expression (Figure 10B).

According to the miRNA prediction tool Targetscan, miR-142-3p has 2303 predicted targets in human while the less potent miR-142-5p has 5247 predicted targets. 1127 genes are predicted to be targeted by both miRNAs. This is twice as many as expected by chance. Similarly, miR-142-3p has 2704 pre- dieted targets in mouse while miR-142-5p has 5110 predicted targets. 1191 genes are predicted to be targeted by both miRNAs. Again, this is twice as many as expected by chance. Interestingly, the more potent miR-142-3p has a smaller target pool than miR-142-5p. Co-occurrence of miR-142-5p and miR-142-3p sites in the 3'-UTR of a given gene presents of mean to enhance the effect of miR-142 repression as demonstrated with gpl30 and Kras. Thus, miR-142 can target three gene pools with different potencies.

Influence of mirl42 expression on the viability of cancer cells In order to test the influence of mirl42 expression on the viability of cancer cells, the inventors assessed the viability of the human colon colorectal carcinoma cell line HCT1 16 (which possesses an activating mutation of KRAS) and the adenocarcinoma cell line HeLa Kyoto. Observed was a dose-dependent reduction of HCT1 16 cell viability with increasing amounts of mirl42 (Figure 11 A). At maximal mirl42 dose, the viability was only 30% of the one of cells treated with a non-targeted control gene. This is comparable to the reduction in viability obtained by suppressing KRAS with shRNA in these cells (Shao et al., Cell, 158: 171- 184, 2014). Viability was reduced to 30% of the control in HeLa cells as well (Figure 11B). The mirl42 dose to obtain this effect was -10 fold lower compared to HCT116. Altogether, these results establish an important role for mirl42 in regulating the viability of human cancer cells.

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